1 - Authenticating

This page provides an overview of authentication.

Users in Kubernetes

All Kubernetes clusters have two categories of users: service accounts managed by Kubernetes, and normal users.

It is assumed that a cluster-independent service manages normal users in the following ways:

  • an administrator distributing private keys
  • a user store like Keystone or Google Accounts
  • a file with a list of usernames and passwords

In this regard, Kubernetes does not have objects which represent normal user accounts. Normal users cannot be added to a cluster through an API call.

Even though a normal user cannot be added via an API call, any user that presents a valid certificate signed by the cluster's certificate authority (CA) is considered authenticated. In this configuration, Kubernetes determines the username from the common name field in the 'subject' of the cert (e.g., "/CN=bob"). From there, the role based access control (RBAC) sub-system would determine whether the user is authorized to perform a specific operation on a resource. For more details, refer to the normal users topic in certificate request for more details about this.

In contrast, service accounts are users managed by the Kubernetes API. They are bound to specific namespaces, and created automatically by the API server or manually through API calls. Service accounts are tied to a set of credentials stored as Secrets, which are mounted into pods allowing in-cluster processes to talk to the Kubernetes API.

API requests are tied to either a normal user or a service account, or are treated as anonymous requests. This means every process inside or outside the cluster, from a human user typing kubectl on a workstation, to kubelets on nodes, to members of the control plane, must authenticate when making requests to the API server, or be treated as an anonymous user.

Authentication strategies

Kubernetes uses client certificates, bearer tokens, or an authenticating proxy to authenticate API requests through authentication plugins. As HTTP requests are made to the API server, plugins attempt to associate the following attributes with the request:

  • Username: a string which identifies the end user. Common values might be kube-admin or jane@example.com.
  • UID: a string which identifies the end user and attempts to be more consistent and unique than username.
  • Groups: a set of strings, each of which indicates the user's membership in a named logical collection of users. Common values might be system:masters or devops-team.
  • Extra fields: a map of strings to list of strings which holds additional information authorizers may find useful.

All values are opaque to the authentication system and only hold significance when interpreted by an authorizer.

You can enable multiple authentication methods at once. You should usually use at least two methods:

  • service account tokens for service accounts
  • at least one other method for user authentication.

When multiple authenticator modules are enabled, the first module to successfully authenticate the request short-circuits evaluation. The API server does not guarantee the order authenticators run in.

The system:authenticated group is included in the list of groups for all authenticated users.

Integrations with other authentication protocols (LDAP, SAML, Kerberos, alternate x509 schemes, etc) can be accomplished using an authenticating proxy or the authentication webhook.

X509 client certificates

Client certificate authentication is enabled by passing the --client-ca-file=SOMEFILE option to API server. The referenced file must contain one or more certificate authorities to use to validate client certificates presented to the API server. If a client certificate is presented and verified, the common name of the subject is used as the user name for the request. As of Kubernetes 1.4, client certificates can also indicate a user's group memberships using the certificate's organization fields. To include multiple group memberships for a user, include multiple organization fields in the certificate.

For example, using the openssl command line tool to generate a certificate signing request:

openssl req -new -key jbeda.pem -out jbeda-csr.pem -subj "/CN=jbeda/O=app1/O=app2"

This would create a CSR for the username "jbeda", belonging to two groups, "app1" and "app2".

See Managing Certificates for how to generate a client cert.

Static token file

The API server reads bearer tokens from a file when given the --token-auth-file=SOMEFILE option on the command line. Currently, tokens last indefinitely, and the token list cannot be changed without restarting the API server.

The token file is a csv file with a minimum of 3 columns: token, user name, user uid, followed by optional group names.

Putting a bearer token in a request

When using bearer token authentication from an http client, the API server expects an Authorization header with a value of Bearer <token>. The bearer token must be a character sequence that can be put in an HTTP header value using no more than the encoding and quoting facilities of HTTP. For example: if the bearer token is 31ada4fd-adec-460c-809a-9e56ceb75269 then it would appear in an HTTP header as shown below.

Authorization: Bearer 31ada4fd-adec-460c-809a-9e56ceb75269

Bootstrap tokens

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.18 [stable]

To allow for streamlined bootstrapping for new clusters, Kubernetes includes a dynamically-managed Bearer token type called a Bootstrap Token. These tokens are stored as Secrets in the kube-system namespace, where they can be dynamically managed and created. Controller Manager contains a TokenCleaner controller that deletes bootstrap tokens as they expire.

The tokens are of the form [a-z0-9]{6}.[a-z0-9]{16}. The first component is a Token ID and the second component is the Token Secret. You specify the token in an HTTP header as follows:

Authorization: Bearer 781292.db7bc3a58fc5f07e

You must enable the Bootstrap Token Authenticator with the --enable-bootstrap-token-auth flag on the API Server. You must enable the TokenCleaner controller via the --controllers flag on the Controller Manager. This is done with something like --controllers=*,tokencleaner. kubeadm will do this for you if you are using it to bootstrap a cluster.

The authenticator authenticates as system:bootstrap:<Token ID>. It is included in the system:bootstrappers group. The naming and groups are intentionally limited to discourage users from using these tokens past bootstrapping. The user names and group can be used (and are used by kubeadm) to craft the appropriate authorization policies to support bootstrapping a cluster.

Please see Bootstrap Tokens for in depth documentation on the Bootstrap Token authenticator and controllers along with how to manage these tokens with kubeadm.

Service account tokens

A service account is an automatically enabled authenticator that uses signed bearer tokens to verify requests. The plugin takes two optional flags:

  • --service-account-key-file File containing PEM-encoded x509 RSA or ECDSA private or public keys, used to verify ServiceAccount tokens. The specified file can contain multiple keys, and the flag can be specified multiple times with different files. If unspecified, --tls-private-key-file is used.
  • --service-account-lookup If enabled, tokens which are deleted from the API will be revoked.

Service accounts are usually created automatically by the API server and associated with pods running in the cluster through the ServiceAccount Admission Controller. Bearer tokens are mounted into pods at well-known locations, and allow in-cluster processes to talk to the API server. Accounts may be explicitly associated with pods using the serviceAccountName field of a PodSpec.

apiVersion: apps/v1 # this apiVersion is relevant as of Kubernetes 1.9
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  name: nginx-deployment
  namespace: default
spec:
  replicas: 3
  template:
    metadata:
    # ...
    spec:
      serviceAccountName: bob-the-bot
      containers:
      - name: nginx
        image: nginx:1.14.2

Service account bearer tokens are perfectly valid to use outside the cluster and can be used to create identities for long standing jobs that wish to talk to the Kubernetes API. To manually create a service account, use the kubectl create serviceaccount (NAME) command. This creates a service account in the current namespace.

kubectl create serviceaccount jenkins
serviceaccount/jenkins created

Create an associated token:

kubectl create token jenkins
eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtp...

The created token is a signed JSON Web Token (JWT).

The signed JWT can be used as a bearer token to authenticate as the given service account. See above for how the token is included in a request. Normally these tokens are mounted into pods for in-cluster access to the API server, but can be used from outside the cluster as well.

Service accounts authenticate with the username system:serviceaccount:(NAMESPACE):(SERVICEACCOUNT), and are assigned to the groups system:serviceaccounts and system:serviceaccounts:(NAMESPACE).

OpenID Connect Tokens

OpenID Connect is a flavor of OAuth2 supported by some OAuth2 providers, notably Microsoft Entra ID, Salesforce, and Google. The protocol's main extension of OAuth2 is an additional field returned with the access token called an ID Token. This token is a JSON Web Token (JWT) with well known fields, such as a user's email, signed by the server.

To identify the user, the authenticator uses the id_token (not the access_token) from the OAuth2 token response as a bearer token. See above for how the token is included in a request.

sequenceDiagram participant user as User participant idp as Identity Provider participant kube as Kubectl participant api as API Server user ->> idp: 1. Log in to IdP activate idp idp -->> user: 2. Provide access_token,
id_token, and refresh_token deactivate idp activate user user ->> kube: 3. Call Kubectl
with --token being the id_token
OR add tokens to .kube/config deactivate user activate kube kube ->> api: 4. Authorization: Bearer... deactivate kube activate api api ->> api: 5. Is JWT signature valid? api ->> api: 6. Has the JWT expired? (iat+exp) api ->> api: 7. User authorized? api -->> kube: 8. Authorized: Perform
action and return result deactivate api activate kube kube --x user: 9. Return result deactivate kube
  1. Log in to your identity provider
  2. Your identity provider will provide you with an access_token, id_token and a refresh_token
  3. When using kubectl, use your id_token with the --token flag or add it directly to your kubeconfig
  4. kubectl sends your id_token in a header called Authorization to the API server
  5. The API server will make sure the JWT signature is valid
  6. Check to make sure the id_token hasn't expired
    1. Perform claim and/or user validation if CEL expressions are configured with AuthenticationConfiguration.
  7. Make sure the user is authorized
  8. Once authorized the API server returns a response to kubectl
  9. kubectl provides feedback to the user

Since all of the data needed to validate who you are is in the id_token, Kubernetes doesn't need to "phone home" to the identity provider. In a model where every request is stateless this provides a very scalable solution for authentication. It does offer a few challenges:

  1. Kubernetes has no "web interface" to trigger the authentication process. There is no browser or interface to collect credentials which is why you need to authenticate to your identity provider first.
  2. The id_token can't be revoked, it's like a certificate so it should be short-lived (only a few minutes) so it can be very annoying to have to get a new token every few minutes.
  3. To authenticate to the Kubernetes dashboard, you must use the kubectl proxy command or a reverse proxy that injects the id_token.

Configuring the API Server

Using flags

To enable the plugin, configure the following flags on the API server:

ParameterDescriptionExampleRequired
--oidc-issuer-urlURL of the provider that allows the API server to discover public signing keys. Only URLs that use the https:// scheme are accepted. This is typically the provider's discovery URL, changed to have an empty pathIf the issuer's OIDC discovery URL is https://accounts.provider.example/.well-known/openid-configuration, the value should be https://accounts.provider.exampleYes
--oidc-client-idA client id that all tokens must be issued for.kubernetesYes
--oidc-username-claimJWT claim to use as the user name. By default sub, which is expected to be a unique identifier of the end user. Admins can choose other claims, such as email or name, depending on their provider. However, claims other than email will be prefixed with the issuer URL to prevent naming clashes with other plugins.subNo
--oidc-username-prefixPrefix prepended to username claims to prevent clashes with existing names (such as system: users). For example, the value oidc: will create usernames like oidc:jane.doe. If this flag isn't provided and --oidc-username-claim is a value other than email the prefix defaults to ( Issuer URL )# where ( Issuer URL ) is the value of --oidc-issuer-url. The value - can be used to disable all prefixing.oidc:No
--oidc-groups-claimJWT claim to use as the user's group. If the claim is present it must be an array of strings.groupsNo
--oidc-groups-prefixPrefix prepended to group claims to prevent clashes with existing names (such as system: groups). For example, the value oidc: will create group names like oidc:engineering and oidc:infra.oidc:No
--oidc-required-claimA key=value pair that describes a required claim in the ID Token. If set, the claim is verified to be present in the ID Token with a matching value. Repeat this flag to specify multiple claims.claim=valueNo
--oidc-ca-fileThe path to the certificate for the CA that signed your identity provider's web certificate. Defaults to the host's root CAs./etc/kubernetes/ssl/kc-ca.pemNo
--oidc-signing-algsThe signing algorithms accepted. Default is "RS256".RS512No
Using Authentication Configuration
FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.29 [alpha]

JWT Authenticator is an authenticator to authenticate Kubernetes users using JWT compliant tokens. The authenticator will attempt to parse a raw ID token, verify it's been signed by the configured issuer. The public key to verify the signature is discovered from the issuer's public endpoint using OIDC discovery.

The API server can be configured to use a JWT authenticator via the --authentication-config flag. This flag takes a path to a file containing the AuthenticationConfiguration. An example configuration is provided below. To use this config, the StructuredAuthenticationConfiguration feature gate has to be enabled.

---
#
# CAUTION: this is an example configuration.
#          Do not use this for your own cluster!
#
apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: AuthenticationConfiguration
# list of authenticators to authenticate Kubernetes users using JWT compliant tokens.
jwt:
- issuer:
    url: https://example.com # Same as --oidc-issuer-url.
    audiences:
    - my-app # Same as --oidc-client-id.
  # rules applied to validate token claims to authenticate users.
  claimValidationRules:
    # Same as --oidc-required-claim key=value.
  - claim: hd
    requiredValue: example.com
    # Instead of claim and requiredValue, you can use expression to validate the claim.
    # expression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a boolean.
    # all the expressions must evaluate to true for validation to succeed.
  - expression: 'claims.hd == "example.com"'
    # Message customizes the error message seen in the API server logs when the validation fails.
    message: the hd claim must be set to example.com
  - expression: 'claims.exp - claims.nbf <= 86400'
    message: total token lifetime must not exceed 24 hours
  claimMappings:
    # username represents an option for the username attribute.
    # This is the only required attribute.
    username:
      # Same as --oidc-username-claim. Mutually exclusive with username.expression.
      claim: "sub"
      # Same as --oidc-username-prefix. Mutually exclusive with username.expression.
      # if username.claim is set, username.prefix is required.
      # Explicitly set it to "" if no prefix is desired.
      prefix: ""
      # Mutually exclusive with username.claim and username.prefix.
      # expression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a string.
      expression: 'claims.username + ":external-user"'
    # groups represents an option for the groups attribute.
    groups:
      # Same as --oidc-groups-claim. Mutually exclusive with groups.expression.
      claim: "sub"
      # Same as --oidc-groups-prefix. Mutually exclusive with groups.expression.
      # if groups.claim is set, groups.prefix is required.
      # Explicitly set it to "" if no prefix is desired.
      prefix: ""
      # Mutually exclusive with groups.claim and groups.prefix.
      # expression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a string or a list of strings.
      expression: 'claims.roles.split(",")'
    # uid represents an option for the uid attribute.
    uid:
      # Mutually exclusive with uid.expression.
      claim: 'sub'
      # Mutually exclusive with uid.claim
      # expression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a string.
      expression: 'claims.sub'
    # extra attributes to be added to the UserInfo object. Keys must be domain-prefix path and must be unique.
    extra:
    - key: 'example.com/tenant'
      # valueExpression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a string or a list of strings.
      valueExpression: 'claims.tenant'
  # validation rules applied to the final user object.
  userValidationRules:
    # expression is a CEL expression that evaluates to a boolean.
    # all the expressions must evaluate to true for the user to be valid.
  - expression: "!user.username.startsWith('system:')"
    # Message customizes the error message seen in the API server logs when the validation fails.
    message: 'username cannot used reserved system: prefix'
  - expression: "user.groups.all(group, !group.startsWith('system:'))"
    message: 'groups cannot used reserved system: prefix'
  • Claim validation rule expression

    jwt.claimValidationRules[i].expression represents the expression which will be evaluated by CEL. CEL expressions have access to the contents of the token payload, organized into claims CEL variable. claims is a map of claim names (as strings) to claim values (of any type).

  • User validation rule expression

    jwt.userValidationRules[i].expression represents the expression which will be evaluated by CEL. CEL expressions have access to the contents of userInfo, organized into user CEL variable. Refer to the UserInfo API documentation for the schema of user.

  • Claim mapping expression

    jwt.claimMappings.username.expression, jwt.claimMappings.groups.expression, jwt.claimMappings.uid.expression jwt.claimMappings.extra[i].valueExpression represents the expression which will be evaluated by CEL. CEL expressions have access to the contents of the token payload, organized into claims CEL variable. claims is a map of claim names (as strings) to claim values (of any type).

    To learn more, see the Documentation on CEL

    Here are examples of the AuthenticationConfiguration with different token payloads.

    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
    kind: AuthenticationConfiguration
    jwt:
    - issuer:
        url: https://example.com
        audiences:
        - my-app
      claimMappings:
        username:
          expression: 'claims.username + ":external-user"'
        groups:
          expression: 'claims.roles.split(",")'
        uid:
          expression: 'claims.sub'
        extra:
        - key: 'example.com/tenant'
          valueExpression: 'claims.tenant'
      userValidationRules:
      - expression: "!user.username.startsWith('system:')" # the expression will evaluate to true, so validation will succeed.
        message: 'username cannot used reserved system: prefix'
    
    TOKEN=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6ImY3dF9tOEROWmFTQk1oWGw5QXZTWGhBUC04Y0JmZ0JVbFVpTG5oQkgxdXMiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QifQ.eyJhdWQiOiJrdWJlcm5ldGVzIiwiZXhwIjoxNzAzMjMyOTQ5LCJpYXQiOjE3MDExMDcyMzMsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vZXhhbXBsZS5jb20iLCJqdGkiOiI3YzMzNzk0MjgwN2U3M2NhYTJjMzBjODY4YWMwY2U5MTBiY2UwMmRkY2JmZWJlOGMyM2I4YjVmMjdhZDYyODczIiwibmJmIjoxNzAxMTA3MjMzLCJyb2xlcyI6InVzZXIsYWRtaW4iLCJzdWIiOiJhdXRoIiwidGVuYW50IjoiNzJmOTg4YmYtODZmMS00MWFmLTkxYWItMmQ3Y2QwMTFkYjRhIiwidXNlcm5hbWUiOiJmb28ifQ.TBWF2RkQHm4QQz85AYPcwLxSk-VLvQW-mNDHx7SEOSv9LVwcPYPuPajJpuQn9C_gKq1R94QKSQ5F6UgHMILz8OfmPKmX_00wpwwNVGeevJ79ieX2V-__W56iNR5gJ-i9nn6FYk5pwfVREB0l4HSlpTOmu80gbPWAXY5hLW0ZtcE1JTEEmefORHV2ge8e3jp1xGafNy6LdJWabYuKiw8d7Qga__HxtKB-t0kRMNzLRS7rka_SfQg0dSYektuxhLbiDkqhmRffGlQKXGVzUsuvFw7IGM5ZWnZgEMDzCI357obHeM3tRqpn5WRjtB8oM7JgnCymaJi-P3iCd88iu1xnzA
    

    where the token payload is:

      {
        "aud": "kubernetes",
        "exp": 1703232949,
        "iat": 1701107233,
        "iss": "https://example.com",
        "jti": "7c337942807e73caa2c30c868ac0ce910bce02ddcbfebe8c23b8b5f27ad62873",
        "nbf": 1701107233,
        "roles": "user,admin",
        "sub": "auth",
        "tenant": "72f988bf-86f1-41af-91ab-2d7cd011db4a",
        "username": "foo"
      }
    

    The token with the above AuthenticationConfiguration will produce the following UserInfo object and successfully authenticate the user.

    {
        "username": "foo:external-user",
        "uid": "auth",
        "groups": [
            "user",
            "admin"
        ],
        "extra": {
            "example.com/tenant": "72f988bf-86f1-41af-91ab-2d7cd011db4a"
        }
    }
    

    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
    kind: AuthenticationConfiguration
    jwt:
    - issuer:
        url: https://example.com
        audiences:
        - my-app
      claimValidationRules:
      - expression: 'claims.hd == "example.com"' # the token below does not have this claim, so validation will fail.
        message: the hd claim must be set to example.com
      claimMappings:
        username:
          expression: 'claims.username + ":external-user"'
        groups:
          expression: 'claims.roles.split(",")'
        uid:
          expression: 'claims.sub'
        extra:
        - key: 'example.com/tenant'
          valueExpression: 'claims.tenant'
      userValidationRules:
      - expression: "!user.username.startsWith('system:')" # the expression will evaluate to true, so validation will succeed.
        message: 'username cannot used reserved system: prefix'
    
    TOKEN=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6ImY3dF9tOEROWmFTQk1oWGw5QXZTWGhBUC04Y0JmZ0JVbFVpTG5oQkgxdXMiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QifQ.eyJhdWQiOiJrdWJlcm5ldGVzIiwiZXhwIjoxNzAzMjMyOTQ5LCJpYXQiOjE3MDExMDcyMzMsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vZXhhbXBsZS5jb20iLCJqdGkiOiI3YzMzNzk0MjgwN2U3M2NhYTJjMzBjODY4YWMwY2U5MTBiY2UwMmRkY2JmZWJlOGMyM2I4YjVmMjdhZDYyODczIiwibmJmIjoxNzAxMTA3MjMzLCJyb2xlcyI6InVzZXIsYWRtaW4iLCJzdWIiOiJhdXRoIiwidGVuYW50IjoiNzJmOTg4YmYtODZmMS00MWFmLTkxYWItMmQ3Y2QwMTFkYjRhIiwidXNlcm5hbWUiOiJmb28ifQ.TBWF2RkQHm4QQz85AYPcwLxSk-VLvQW-mNDHx7SEOSv9LVwcPYPuPajJpuQn9C_gKq1R94QKSQ5F6UgHMILz8OfmPKmX_00wpwwNVGeevJ79ieX2V-__W56iNR5gJ-i9nn6FYk5pwfVREB0l4HSlpTOmu80gbPWAXY5hLW0ZtcE1JTEEmefORHV2ge8e3jp1xGafNy6LdJWabYuKiw8d7Qga__HxtKB-t0kRMNzLRS7rka_SfQg0dSYektuxhLbiDkqhmRffGlQKXGVzUsuvFw7IGM5ZWnZgEMDzCI357obHeM3tRqpn5WRjtB8oM7JgnCymaJi-P3iCd88iu1xnzA
    

    where the token payload is:

      {
        "aud": "kubernetes",
        "exp": 1703232949,
        "iat": 1701107233,
        "iss": "https://example.com",
        "jti": "7c337942807e73caa2c30c868ac0ce910bce02ddcbfebe8c23b8b5f27ad62873",
        "nbf": 1701107233,
        "roles": "user,admin",
        "sub": "auth",
        "tenant": "72f988bf-86f1-41af-91ab-2d7cd011db4a",
        "username": "foo"
      }
    

    The token with the above AuthenticationConfiguration will fail to authenticate because the hd claim is not set to example.com. The API server will return 401 Unauthorized error.

    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
    kind: AuthenticationConfiguration
    jwt:
    - issuer:
        url: https://example.com
        audiences:
        - my-app
      claimValidationRules:
      - expression: 'claims.hd == "example.com"'
        message: the hd claim must be set to example.com
      claimMappings:
        username:
          expression: '"system:" + claims.username' # this will prefix the username with "system:" and will fail user validation.
        groups:
          expression: 'claims.roles.split(",")'
        uid:
          expression: 'claims.sub'
        extra:
        - key: 'example.com/tenant'
          valueExpression: 'claims.tenant'
      userValidationRules:
      - expression: "!user.username.startsWith('system:')" # the username will be system:foo and expression will evaluate to false, so validation will fail.
        message: 'username cannot used reserved system: prefix'
    
    TOKEN=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6ImY3dF9tOEROWmFTQk1oWGw5QXZTWGhBUC04Y0JmZ0JVbFVpTG5oQkgxdXMiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QifQ.eyJhdWQiOiJrdWJlcm5ldGVzIiwiZXhwIjoxNzAzMjMyOTQ5LCJoZCI6ImV4YW1wbGUuY29tIiwiaWF0IjoxNzAxMTEzMTAxLCJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL2V4YW1wbGUuY29tIiwianRpIjoiYjViMDY1MjM3MmNkMjBlMzQ1YjZmZGZmY2RjMjE4MWY0YWZkNmYyNTlhYWI0YjdlMzU4ODEyMzdkMjkyMjBiYyIsIm5iZiI6MTcwMTExMzEwMSwicm9sZXMiOiJ1c2VyLGFkbWluIiwic3ViIjoiYXV0aCIsInRlbmFudCI6IjcyZjk4OGJmLTg2ZjEtNDFhZi05MWFiLTJkN2NkMDExZGI0YSIsInVzZXJuYW1lIjoiZm9vIn0.FgPJBYLobo9jnbHreooBlvpgEcSPWnKfX6dc0IvdlRB-F0dCcgy91oCJeK_aBk-8zH5AKUXoFTlInfLCkPivMOJqMECA1YTrMUwt_IVqwb116AqihfByUYIIqzMjvUbthtbpIeHQm2fF0HbrUqa_Q0uaYwgy8mD807h7sBcUMjNd215ff_nFIHss-9zegH8GI1d9fiBf-g6zjkR1j987EP748khpQh9IxPjMJbSgG_uH5x80YFuqgEWwq-aYJPQxXX6FatP96a2EAn7wfPpGlPRt0HcBOvq5pCnudgCgfVgiOJiLr_7robQu4T1bis0W75VPEvwWtgFcLnvcQx0JWg
    

    where the token payload is:

      {
        "aud": "kubernetes",
        "exp": 1703232949,
        "hd": "example.com",
        "iat": 1701113101,
        "iss": "https://example.com",
        "jti": "b5b0652372cd20e345b6fdffcdc2181f4afd6f259aab4b7e35881237d29220bc",
        "nbf": 1701113101,
        "roles": "user,admin",
        "sub": "auth",
        "tenant": "72f988bf-86f1-41af-91ab-2d7cd011db4a",
        "username": "foo"
      }
    

    The token with the above AuthenticationConfiguration will produce the following UserInfo object:

    {
        "username": "system:foo",
        "uid": "auth",
        "groups": [
            "user",
            "admin"
        ],
        "extra": {
            "example.com/tenant": "72f988bf-86f1-41af-91ab-2d7cd011db4a"
        }
    }
    

    which will fail user validation because the username starts with system:. The API server will return 401 Unauthorized error.

Importantly, the API server is not an OAuth2 client, rather it can only be configured to trust a single issuer. This allows the use of public providers, such as Google, without trusting credentials issued to third parties. Admins who wish to utilize multiple OAuth clients should explore providers which support the azp (authorized party) claim, a mechanism for allowing one client to issue tokens on behalf of another.

Kubernetes does not provide an OpenID Connect Identity Provider. You can use an existing public OpenID Connect Identity Provider (such as Google, or others). Or, you can run your own Identity Provider, such as dex, Keycloak, CloudFoundry UAA, or Tremolo Security's OpenUnison.

For an identity provider to work with Kubernetes it must:

  1. Support OpenID connect discovery; not all do.
  2. Run in TLS with non-obsolete ciphers
  3. Have a CA signed certificate (even if the CA is not a commercial CA or is self signed)

A note about requirement #3 above, requiring a CA signed certificate. If you deploy your own identity provider (as opposed to one of the cloud providers like Google or Microsoft) you MUST have your identity provider's web server certificate signed by a certificate with the CA flag set to TRUE, even if it is self signed. This is due to GoLang's TLS client implementation being very strict to the standards around certificate validation. If you don't have a CA handy, you can use the gencert script from the Dex team to create a simple CA and a signed certificate and key pair. Or you can use this similar script that generates SHA256 certs with a longer life and larger key size.

Setup instructions for specific systems:

Using kubectl

Option 1 - OIDC Authenticator

The first option is to use the kubectl oidc authenticator, which sets the id_token as a bearer token for all requests and refreshes the token once it expires. After you've logged into your provider, use kubectl to add your id_token, refresh_token, client_id, and client_secret to configure the plugin.

Providers that don't return an id_token as part of their refresh token response aren't supported by this plugin and should use "Option 2" below.

kubectl config set-credentials USER_NAME \
   --auth-provider=oidc \
   --auth-provider-arg=idp-issuer-url=( issuer url ) \
   --auth-provider-arg=client-id=( your client id ) \
   --auth-provider-arg=client-secret=( your client secret ) \
   --auth-provider-arg=refresh-token=( your refresh token ) \
   --auth-provider-arg=idp-certificate-authority=( path to your ca certificate ) \
   --auth-provider-arg=id-token=( your id_token )

As an example, running the below command after authenticating to your identity provider:

kubectl config set-credentials mmosley  \
        --auth-provider=oidc  \
        --auth-provider-arg=idp-issuer-url=https://oidcidp.tremolo.lan:8443/auth/idp/OidcIdP  \
        --auth-provider-arg=client-id=kubernetes  \
        --auth-provider-arg=client-secret=1db158f6-177d-4d9c-8a8b-d36869918ec5  \
        --auth-provider-arg=refresh-token=q1bKLFOyUiosTfawzA93TzZIDzH2TNa2SMm0zEiPKTUwME6BkEo6Sql5yUWVBSWpKUGphaWpxSVAfekBOZbBhaEW+VlFUeVRGcluyVF5JT4+haZmPsluFoFu5XkpXk5BXqHega4GAXlF+ma+vmYpFcHe5eZR+slBFpZKtQA= \
        --auth-provider-arg=idp-certificate-authority=/root/ca.pem \
        --auth-provider-arg=id-token=eyJraWQiOiJDTj1vaWRjaWRwLnRyZW1vbG8ubGFuLCBPVT1EZW1vLCBPPVRybWVvbG8gU2VjdXJpdHksIEw9QXJsaW5ndG9uLCBTVD1WaXJnaW5pYSwgQz1VUy1DTj1rdWJlLWNhLTEyMDIxNDc5MjEwMzYwNzMyMTUyIiwiYWxnIjoiUlMyNTYifQ.eyJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL29pZGNpZHAudHJlbW9sby5sYW46ODQ0My9hdXRoL2lkcC9PaWRjSWRQIiwiYXVkIjoia3ViZXJuZXRlcyIsImV4cCI6MTQ4MzU0OTUxMSwianRpIjoiMm96US15TXdFcHV4WDlHZUhQdy1hZyIsImlhdCI6MTQ4MzU0OTQ1MSwibmJmIjoxNDgzNTQ5MzMxLCJzdWIiOiI0YWViMzdiYS1iNjQ1LTQ4ZmQtYWIzMC0xYTAxZWU0MWUyMTgifQ.w6p4J_6qQ1HzTG9nrEOrubxIMb9K5hzcMPxc9IxPx2K4xO9l-oFiUw93daH3m5pluP6K7eOE6txBuRVfEcpJSwlelsOsW8gb8VJcnzMS9EnZpeA0tW_p-mnkFc3VcfyXuhe5R3G7aa5d8uHv70yJ9Y3-UhjiN9EhpMdfPAoEB9fYKKkJRzF7utTTIPGrSaSU6d2pcpfYKaxIwePzEkT4DfcQthoZdy9ucNvvLoi1DIC-UocFD8HLs8LYKEqSxQvOcvnThbObJ9af71EwmuE21fO5KzMW20KtAeget1gnldOosPtz1G5EwvaQ401-RPQzPGMVBld0_zMCAwZttJ4knw

Which would produce the below configuration:

users:
- name: mmosley
  user:
    auth-provider:
      config:
        client-id: kubernetes
        client-secret: 1db158f6-177d-4d9c-8a8b-d36869918ec5
        id-token: eyJraWQiOiJDTj1vaWRjaWRwLnRyZW1vbG8ubGFuLCBPVT1EZW1vLCBPPVRybWVvbG8gU2VjdXJpdHksIEw9QXJsaW5ndG9uLCBTVD1WaXJnaW5pYSwgQz1VUy1DTj1rdWJlLWNhLTEyMDIxNDc5MjEwMzYwNzMyMTUyIiwiYWxnIjoiUlMyNTYifQ.eyJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL29pZGNpZHAudHJlbW9sby5sYW46ODQ0My9hdXRoL2lkcC9PaWRjSWRQIiwiYXVkIjoia3ViZXJuZXRlcyIsImV4cCI6MTQ4MzU0OTUxMSwianRpIjoiMm96US15TXdFcHV4WDlHZUhQdy1hZyIsImlhdCI6MTQ4MzU0OTQ1MSwibmJmIjoxNDgzNTQ5MzMxLCJzdWIiOiI0YWViMzdiYS1iNjQ1LTQ4ZmQtYWIzMC0xYTAxZWU0MWUyMTgifQ.w6p4J_6qQ1HzTG9nrEOrubxIMb9K5hzcMPxc9IxPx2K4xO9l-oFiUw93daH3m5pluP6K7eOE6txBuRVfEcpJSwlelsOsW8gb8VJcnzMS9EnZpeA0tW_p-mnkFc3VcfyXuhe5R3G7aa5d8uHv70yJ9Y3-UhjiN9EhpMdfPAoEB9fYKKkJRzF7utTTIPGrSaSU6d2pcpfYKaxIwePzEkT4DfcQthoZdy9ucNvvLoi1DIC-UocFD8HLs8LYKEqSxQvOcvnThbObJ9af71EwmuE21fO5KzMW20KtAeget1gnldOosPtz1G5EwvaQ401-RPQzPGMVBld0_zMCAwZttJ4knw
        idp-certificate-authority: /root/ca.pem
        idp-issuer-url: https://oidcidp.tremolo.lan:8443/auth/idp/OidcIdP
        refresh-token: q1bKLFOyUiosTfawzA93TzZIDzH2TNa2SMm0zEiPKTUwME6BkEo6Sql5yUWVBSWpKUGphaWpxSVAfekBOZbBhaEW+VlFUeVRGcluyVF5JT4+haZmPsluFoFu5XkpXk5BXq
      name: oidc

Once your id_token expires, kubectl will attempt to refresh your id_token using your refresh_token and client_secret storing the new values for the refresh_token and id_token in your .kube/config.

Option 2 - Use the --token Option

The kubectl command lets you pass in a token using the --token option. Copy and paste the id_token into this option:

kubectl --token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiJ9.eyJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL21sYi50cmVtb2xvLmxhbjo4MDQzL2F1dGgvaWRwL29pZGMiLCJhdWQiOiJrdWJlcm5ldGVzIiwiZXhwIjoxNDc0NTk2NjY5LCJqdGkiOiI2RDUzNXoxUEpFNjJOR3QxaWVyYm9RIiwiaWF0IjoxNDc0NTk2MzY5LCJuYmYiOjE0NzQ1OTYyNDksInN1YiI6Im13aW5kdSIsInVzZXJfcm9sZSI6WyJ1c2VycyIsIm5ldy1uYW1lc3BhY2Utdmlld2VyIl0sImVtYWlsIjoibXdpbmR1QG5vbW9yZWplZGkuY29tIn0.f2As579n9VNoaKzoF-dOQGmXkFKf1FMyNV0-va_B63jn-_n9LGSCca_6IVMP8pO-Zb4KvRqGyTP0r3HkHxYy5c81AnIh8ijarruczl-TK_yF5akjSTHFZD-0gRzlevBDiH8Q79NAr-ky0P4iIXS8lY9Vnjch5MF74Zx0c3alKJHJUnnpjIACByfF2SCaYzbWFMUNat-K1PaUk5-ujMBG7yYnr95xD-63n8CO8teGUAAEMx6zRjzfhnhbzX-ajwZLGwGUBT4WqjMs70-6a7_8gZmLZb2az1cZynkFRj2BaCkVT3A2RrjeEwZEtGXlMqKJ1_I2ulrOVsYx01_yD35-rw get nodes

Webhook Token Authentication

Webhook authentication is a hook for verifying bearer tokens.

  • --authentication-token-webhook-config-file a configuration file describing how to access the remote webhook service.
  • --authentication-token-webhook-cache-ttl how long to cache authentication decisions. Defaults to two minutes.
  • --authentication-token-webhook-version determines whether to use authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1 or authentication.k8s.io/v1 TokenReview objects to send/receive information from the webhook. Defaults to v1beta1.

The configuration file uses the kubeconfig file format. Within the file, clusters refers to the remote service and users refers to the API server webhook. An example would be:

# Kubernetes API version
apiVersion: v1
# kind of the API object
kind: Config
# clusters refers to the remote service.
clusters:
  - name: name-of-remote-authn-service
    cluster:
      certificate-authority: /path/to/ca.pem         # CA for verifying the remote service.
      server: https://authn.example.com/authenticate # URL of remote service to query. 'https' recommended for production.

# users refers to the API server's webhook configuration.
users:
  - name: name-of-api-server
    user:
      client-certificate: /path/to/cert.pem # cert for the webhook plugin to use
      client-key: /path/to/key.pem          # key matching the cert

# kubeconfig files require a context. Provide one for the API server.
current-context: webhook
contexts:
- context:
    cluster: name-of-remote-authn-service
    user: name-of-api-server
  name: webhook

When a client attempts to authenticate with the API server using a bearer token as discussed above, the authentication webhook POSTs a JSON-serialized TokenReview object containing the token to the remote service.

Note that webhook API objects are subject to the same versioning compatibility rules as other Kubernetes API objects. Implementers should check the apiVersion field of the request to ensure correct deserialization, and must respond with a TokenReview object of the same version as the request.

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "spec": {
    # Opaque bearer token sent to the API server
    "token": "014fbff9a07c...",

    # Optional list of the audience identifiers for the server the token was presented to.
    # Audience-aware token authenticators (for example, OIDC token authenticators)
    # should verify the token was intended for at least one of the audiences in this list,
    # and return the intersection of this list and the valid audiences for the token in the response status.
    # This ensures the token is valid to authenticate to the server it was presented to.
    # If no audiences are provided, the token should be validated to authenticate to the Kubernetes API server.
    "audiences": ["https://myserver.example.com", "https://myserver.internal.example.com"]
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "spec": {
    # Opaque bearer token sent to the API server
    "token": "014fbff9a07c...",

    # Optional list of the audience identifiers for the server the token was presented to.
    # Audience-aware token authenticators (for example, OIDC token authenticators)
    # should verify the token was intended for at least one of the audiences in this list,
    # and return the intersection of this list and the valid audiences for the token in the response status.
    # This ensures the token is valid to authenticate to the server it was presented to.
    # If no audiences are provided, the token should be validated to authenticate to the Kubernetes API server.
    "audiences": ["https://myserver.example.com", "https://myserver.internal.example.com"]
  }
}

The remote service is expected to fill the status field of the request to indicate the success of the login. The response body's spec field is ignored and may be omitted. The remote service must return a response using the same TokenReview API version that it received. A successful validation of the bearer token would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "status": {
    "authenticated": true,
    "user": {
      # Required
      "username": "janedoe@example.com",
      # Optional
      "uid": "42",
      # Optional group memberships
      "groups": ["developers", "qa"],
      # Optional additional information provided by the authenticator.
      # This should not contain confidential data, as it can be recorded in logs
      # or API objects, and is made available to admission webhooks.
      "extra": {
        "extrafield1": [
          "extravalue1",
          "extravalue2"
        ]
      }
    },
    # Optional list audience-aware token authenticators can return,
    # containing the audiences from the `spec.audiences` list for which the provided token was valid.
    # If this is omitted, the token is considered to be valid to authenticate to the Kubernetes API server.
    "audiences": ["https://myserver.example.com"]
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "status": {
    "authenticated": true,
    "user": {
      # Required
      "username": "janedoe@example.com",
      # Optional
      "uid": "42",
      # Optional group memberships
      "groups": ["developers", "qa"],
      # Optional additional information provided by the authenticator.
      # This should not contain confidential data, as it can be recorded in logs
      # or API objects, and is made available to admission webhooks.
      "extra": {
        "extrafield1": [
          "extravalue1",
          "extravalue2"
        ]
      }
    },
    # Optional list audience-aware token authenticators can return,
    # containing the audiences from the `spec.audiences` list for which the provided token was valid.
    # If this is omitted, the token is considered to be valid to authenticate to the Kubernetes API server.
    "audiences": ["https://myserver.example.com"]
  }
}

An unsuccessful request would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "status": {
    "authenticated": false,
    # Optionally include details about why authentication failed.
    # If no error is provided, the API will return a generic Unauthorized message.
    # The error field is ignored when authenticated=true.
    "error": "Credentials are expired"
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "TokenReview",
  "status": {
    "authenticated": false,
    # Optionally include details about why authentication failed.
    # If no error is provided, the API will return a generic Unauthorized message.
    # The error field is ignored when authenticated=true.
    "error": "Credentials are expired"
  }
}

Authenticating Proxy

The API server can be configured to identify users from request header values, such as X-Remote-User. It is designed for use in combination with an authenticating proxy, which sets the request header value.

  • --requestheader-username-headers Required, case-insensitive. Header names to check, in order, for the user identity. The first header containing a value is used as the username.
  • --requestheader-group-headers 1.6+. Optional, case-insensitive. "X-Remote-Group" is suggested. Header names to check, in order, for the user's groups. All values in all specified headers are used as group names.
  • --requestheader-extra-headers-prefix 1.6+. Optional, case-insensitive. "X-Remote-Extra-" is suggested. Header prefixes to look for to determine extra information about the user (typically used by the configured authorization plugin). Any headers beginning with any of the specified prefixes have the prefix removed. The remainder of the header name is lowercased and percent-decoded and becomes the extra key, and the header value is the extra value.

For example, with this configuration:

--requestheader-username-headers=X-Remote-User
--requestheader-group-headers=X-Remote-Group
--requestheader-extra-headers-prefix=X-Remote-Extra-

this request:

GET / HTTP/1.1
X-Remote-User: fido
X-Remote-Group: dogs
X-Remote-Group: dachshunds
X-Remote-Extra-Acme.com%2Fproject: some-project
X-Remote-Extra-Scopes: openid
X-Remote-Extra-Scopes: profile

would result in this user info:

name: fido
groups:
- dogs
- dachshunds
extra:
  acme.com/project:
  - some-project
  scopes:
  - openid
  - profile

In order to prevent header spoofing, the authenticating proxy is required to present a valid client certificate to the API server for validation against the specified CA before the request headers are checked. WARNING: do not reuse a CA that is used in a different context unless you understand the risks and the mechanisms to protect the CA's usage.

  • --requestheader-client-ca-file Required. PEM-encoded certificate bundle. A valid client certificate must be presented and validated against the certificate authorities in the specified file before the request headers are checked for user names.
  • --requestheader-allowed-names Optional. List of Common Name values (CNs). If set, a valid client certificate with a CN in the specified list must be presented before the request headers are checked for user names. If empty, any CN is allowed.

Anonymous requests

When enabled, requests that are not rejected by other configured authentication methods are treated as anonymous requests, and given a username of system:anonymous and a group of system:unauthenticated.

For example, on a server with token authentication configured, and anonymous access enabled, a request providing an invalid bearer token would receive a 401 Unauthorized error. A request providing no bearer token would be treated as an anonymous request.

In 1.5.1-1.5.x, anonymous access is disabled by default, and can be enabled by passing the --anonymous-auth=true option to the API server.

In 1.6+, anonymous access is enabled by default if an authorization mode other than AlwaysAllow is used, and can be disabled by passing the --anonymous-auth=false option to the API server. Starting in 1.6, the ABAC and RBAC authorizers require explicit authorization of the system:anonymous user or the system:unauthenticated group, so legacy policy rules that grant access to the * user or * group do not include anonymous users.

User impersonation

A user can act as another user through impersonation headers. These let requests manually override the user info a request authenticates as. For example, an admin could use this feature to debug an authorization policy by temporarily impersonating another user and seeing if a request was denied.

Impersonation requests first authenticate as the requesting user, then switch to the impersonated user info.

  • A user makes an API call with their credentials and impersonation headers.
  • API server authenticates the user.
  • API server ensures the authenticated users have impersonation privileges.
  • Request user info is replaced with impersonation values.
  • Request is evaluated, authorization acts on impersonated user info.

The following HTTP headers can be used to performing an impersonation request:

  • Impersonate-User: The username to act as.
  • Impersonate-Group: A group name to act as. Can be provided multiple times to set multiple groups. Optional. Requires "Impersonate-User".
  • Impersonate-Extra-( extra name ): A dynamic header used to associate extra fields with the user. Optional. Requires "Impersonate-User". In order to be preserved consistently, ( extra name ) must be lower-case, and any characters which aren't legal in HTTP header labels MUST be utf8 and percent-encoded.
  • Impersonate-Uid: A unique identifier that represents the user being impersonated. Optional. Requires "Impersonate-User". Kubernetes does not impose any format requirements on this string.

An example of the impersonation headers used when impersonating a user with groups:

Impersonate-User: jane.doe@example.com
Impersonate-Group: developers
Impersonate-Group: admins

An example of the impersonation headers used when impersonating a user with a UID and extra fields:

Impersonate-User: jane.doe@example.com
Impersonate-Extra-dn: cn=jane,ou=engineers,dc=example,dc=com
Impersonate-Extra-acme.com%2Fproject: some-project
Impersonate-Extra-scopes: view
Impersonate-Extra-scopes: development
Impersonate-Uid: 06f6ce97-e2c5-4ab8-7ba5-7654dd08d52b

When using kubectl set the --as flag to configure the Impersonate-User header, set the --as-group flag to configure the Impersonate-Group header.

kubectl drain mynode
Error from server (Forbidden): User "clark" cannot get nodes at the cluster scope. (get nodes mynode)

Set the --as and --as-group flag:

kubectl drain mynode --as=superman --as-group=system:masters
node/mynode cordoned
node/mynode drained

To impersonate a user, group, user identifier (UID) or extra fields, the impersonating user must have the ability to perform the "impersonate" verb on the kind of attribute being impersonated ("user", "group", "uid", etc.). For clusters that enable the RBAC authorization plugin, the following ClusterRole encompasses the rules needed to set user and group impersonation headers:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: impersonator
rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  resources: ["users", "groups", "serviceaccounts"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]

For impersonation, extra fields and impersonated UIDs are both under the "authentication.k8s.io" apiGroup. Extra fields are evaluated as sub-resources of the resource "userextras". To allow a user to use impersonation headers for the extra field "scopes" and for UIDs, a user should be granted the following role:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: scopes-and-uid-impersonator
rules:
# Can set "Impersonate-Extra-scopes" header and the "Impersonate-Uid" header.
- apiGroups: ["authentication.k8s.io"]
  resources: ["userextras/scopes", "uids"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]

The values of impersonation headers can also be restricted by limiting the set of resourceNames a resource can take.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: limited-impersonator
rules:
# Can impersonate the user "jane.doe@example.com"
- apiGroups: [""]
  resources: ["users"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]
  resourceNames: ["jane.doe@example.com"]

# Can impersonate the groups "developers" and "admins"
- apiGroups: [""]
  resources: ["groups"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]
  resourceNames: ["developers","admins"]

# Can impersonate the extras field "scopes" with the values "view" and "development"
- apiGroups: ["authentication.k8s.io"]
  resources: ["userextras/scopes"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]
  resourceNames: ["view", "development"]

# Can impersonate the uid "06f6ce97-e2c5-4ab8-7ba5-7654dd08d52b"
- apiGroups: ["authentication.k8s.io"]
  resources: ["uids"]
  verbs: ["impersonate"]
  resourceNames: ["06f6ce97-e2c5-4ab8-7ba5-7654dd08d52b"]

client-go credential plugins

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.22 [stable]

k8s.io/client-go and tools using it such as kubectl and kubelet are able to execute an external command to receive user credentials.

This feature is intended for client side integrations with authentication protocols not natively supported by k8s.io/client-go (LDAP, Kerberos, OAuth2, SAML, etc.). The plugin implements the protocol specific logic, then returns opaque credentials to use. Almost all credential plugin use cases require a server side component with support for the webhook token authenticator to interpret the credential format produced by the client plugin.

Example use case

In a hypothetical use case, an organization would run an external service that exchanges LDAP credentials for user specific, signed tokens. The service would also be capable of responding to webhook token authenticator requests to validate the tokens. Users would be required to install a credential plugin on their workstation.

To authenticate against the API:

  • The user issues a kubectl command.
  • Credential plugin prompts the user for LDAP credentials, exchanges credentials with external service for a token.
  • Credential plugin returns token to client-go, which uses it as a bearer token against the API server.
  • API server uses the webhook token authenticator to submit a TokenReview to the external service.
  • External service verifies the signature on the token and returns the user's username and groups.

Configuration

Credential plugins are configured through kubectl config files as part of the user fields.

apiVersion: v1
kind: Config
users:
- name: my-user
  user:
    exec:
      # Command to execute. Required.
      command: "example-client-go-exec-plugin"

      # API version to use when decoding the ExecCredentials resource. Required.
      #
      # The API version returned by the plugin MUST match the version listed here.
      #
      # To integrate with tools that support multiple versions (such as client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1),
      # set an environment variable, pass an argument to the tool that indicates which version the exec plugin expects,
      # or read the version from the ExecCredential object in the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable.
      apiVersion: "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1"

      # Environment variables to set when executing the plugin. Optional.
      env:
      - name: "FOO"
        value: "bar"

      # Arguments to pass when executing the plugin. Optional.
      args:
      - "arg1"
      - "arg2"

      # Text shown to the user when the executable doesn't seem to be present. Optional.
      installHint: |
        example-client-go-exec-plugin is required to authenticate
        to the current cluster.  It can be installed:

        On macOS: brew install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        On Ubuntu: apt-get install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        On Fedora: dnf install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        ...        

      # Whether or not to provide cluster information, which could potentially contain
      # very large CA data, to this exec plugin as a part of the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO
      # environment variable.
      provideClusterInfo: true

      # The contract between the exec plugin and the standard input I/O stream. If the
      # contract cannot be satisfied, this plugin will not be run and an error will be
      # returned. Valid values are "Never" (this exec plugin never uses standard input),
      # "IfAvailable" (this exec plugin wants to use standard input if it is available),
      # or "Always" (this exec plugin requires standard input to function). Required.
      interactiveMode: Never
clusters:
- name: my-cluster
  cluster:
    server: "https://172.17.4.100:6443"
    certificate-authority: "/etc/kubernetes/ca.pem"
    extensions:
    - name: client.authentication.k8s.io/exec # reserved extension name for per cluster exec config
      extension:
        arbitrary: config
        this: can be provided via the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable upon setting provideClusterInfo
        you: ["can", "put", "anything", "here"]
contexts:
- name: my-cluster
  context:
    cluster: my-cluster
    user: my-user
current-context: my-cluster

apiVersion: v1
kind: Config
users:
- name: my-user
  user:
    exec:
      # Command to execute. Required.
      command: "example-client-go-exec-plugin"

      # API version to use when decoding the ExecCredentials resource. Required.
      #
      # The API version returned by the plugin MUST match the version listed here.
      #
      # To integrate with tools that support multiple versions (such as client.authentication.k8s.io/v1),
      # set an environment variable, pass an argument to the tool that indicates which version the exec plugin expects,
      # or read the version from the ExecCredential object in the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable.
      apiVersion: "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1"

      # Environment variables to set when executing the plugin. Optional.
      env:
      - name: "FOO"
        value: "bar"

      # Arguments to pass when executing the plugin. Optional.
      args:
      - "arg1"
      - "arg2"

      # Text shown to the user when the executable doesn't seem to be present. Optional.
      installHint: |
        example-client-go-exec-plugin is required to authenticate
        to the current cluster.  It can be installed:

        On macOS: brew install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        On Ubuntu: apt-get install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        On Fedora: dnf install example-client-go-exec-plugin

        ...        

      # Whether or not to provide cluster information, which could potentially contain
      # very large CA data, to this exec plugin as a part of the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO
      # environment variable.
      provideClusterInfo: true

      # The contract between the exec plugin and the standard input I/O stream. If the
      # contract cannot be satisfied, this plugin will not be run and an error will be
      # returned. Valid values are "Never" (this exec plugin never uses standard input),
      # "IfAvailable" (this exec plugin wants to use standard input if it is available),
      # or "Always" (this exec plugin requires standard input to function). Optional.
      # Defaults to "IfAvailable".
      interactiveMode: Never
clusters:
- name: my-cluster
  cluster:
    server: "https://172.17.4.100:6443"
    certificate-authority: "/etc/kubernetes/ca.pem"
    extensions:
    - name: client.authentication.k8s.io/exec # reserved extension name for per cluster exec config
      extension:
        arbitrary: config
        this: can be provided via the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable upon setting provideClusterInfo
        you: ["can", "put", "anything", "here"]
contexts:
- name: my-cluster
  context:
    cluster: my-cluster
    user: my-user
current-context: my-cluster

Relative command paths are interpreted as relative to the directory of the config file. If KUBECONFIG is set to /home/jane/kubeconfig and the exec command is ./bin/example-client-go-exec-plugin, the binary /home/jane/bin/example-client-go-exec-plugin is executed.

- name: my-user
  user:
    exec:
      # Path relative to the directory of the kubeconfig
      command: "./bin/example-client-go-exec-plugin"
      apiVersion: "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1"
      interactiveMode: Never

Input and output formats

The executed command prints an ExecCredential object to stdout. k8s.io/client-go authenticates against the Kubernetes API using the returned credentials in the status. The executed command is passed an ExecCredential object as input via the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable. This input contains helpful information like the expected API version of the returned ExecCredential object and whether or not the plugin can use stdin to interact with the user.

When run from an interactive session (i.e., a terminal), stdin can be exposed directly to the plugin. Plugins should use the spec.interactive field of the input ExecCredential object from the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable in order to determine if stdin has been provided. A plugin's stdin requirements (i.e., whether stdin is optional, strictly required, or never used in order for the plugin to run successfully) is declared via the user.exec.interactiveMode field in the kubeconfig (see table below for valid values). The user.exec.interactiveMode field is optional in client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1 and required in client.authentication.k8s.io/v1.

interactiveMode values
interactiveMode ValueMeaning
NeverThis exec plugin never needs to use standard input, and therefore the exec plugin will be run regardless of whether standard input is available for user input.
IfAvailableThis exec plugin would like to use standard input if it is available, but can still operate if standard input is not available. Therefore, the exec plugin will be run regardless of whether stdin is available for user input. If standard input is available for user input, then it will be provided to this exec plugin.
AlwaysThis exec plugin requires standard input in order to run, and therefore the exec plugin will only be run if standard input is available for user input. If standard input is not available for user input, then the exec plugin will not be run and an error will be returned by the exec plugin runner.

To use bearer token credentials, the plugin returns a token in the status of the ExecCredential

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "token": "my-bearer-token"
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "token": "my-bearer-token"
  }
}

Alternatively, a PEM-encoded client certificate and key can be returned to use TLS client auth. If the plugin returns a different certificate and key on a subsequent call, k8s.io/client-go will close existing connections with the server to force a new TLS handshake.

If specified, clientKeyData and clientCertificateData must both must be present.

clientCertificateData may contain additional intermediate certificates to send to the server.

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "clientCertificateData": "-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----\n...\n-----END CERTIFICATE-----",
    "clientKeyData": "-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----\n...\n-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----"
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "clientCertificateData": "-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----\n...\n-----END CERTIFICATE-----",
    "clientKeyData": "-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----\n...\n-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----"
  }
}

Optionally, the response can include the expiry of the credential formatted as a RFC 3339 timestamp.

Presence or absence of an expiry has the following impact:

  • If an expiry is included, the bearer token and TLS credentials are cached until the expiry time is reached, or if the server responds with a 401 HTTP status code, or when the process exits.
  • If an expiry is omitted, the bearer token and TLS credentials are cached until the server responds with a 401 HTTP status code or until the process exits.

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "token": "my-bearer-token",
    "expirationTimestamp": "2018-03-05T17:30:20-08:00"
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "status": {
    "token": "my-bearer-token",
    "expirationTimestamp": "2018-03-05T17:30:20-08:00"
  }
}

To enable the exec plugin to obtain cluster-specific information, set provideClusterInfo on the user.exec field in the kubeconfig. The plugin will then be supplied this cluster-specific information in the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable. Information from this environment variable can be used to perform cluster-specific credential acquisition logic. The following ExecCredential manifest describes a cluster information sample.

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "spec": {
    "cluster": {
      "server": "https://172.17.4.100:6443",
      "certificate-authority-data": "LS0t...",
      "config": {
        "arbitrary": "config",
        "this": "can be provided via the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable upon setting provideClusterInfo",
        "you": ["can", "put", "anything", "here"]
      }
    },
    "interactive": true
  }
}

{
  "apiVersion": "client.authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "ExecCredential",
  "spec": {
    "cluster": {
      "server": "https://172.17.4.100:6443",
      "certificate-authority-data": "LS0t...",
      "config": {
        "arbitrary": "config",
        "this": "can be provided via the KUBERNETES_EXEC_INFO environment variable upon setting provideClusterInfo",
        "you": ["can", "put", "anything", "here"]
      }
    },
    "interactive": true
  }
}

API access to authentication information for a client

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.28 [stable]

If your cluster has the API enabled, you can use the SelfSubjectReview API to find out how your Kubernetes cluster maps your authentication information to identify you as a client. This works whether you are authenticating as a user (typically representing a real person) or as a ServiceAccount.

SelfSubjectReview objects do not have any configurable fields. On receiving a request, the Kubernetes API server fills the status with the user attributes and returns it to the user.

Request example (the body would be a SelfSubjectReview):

POST /apis/authentication.k8s.io/v1/selfsubjectreviews
{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "SelfSubjectReview"
}

Response example:

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "SelfSubjectReview",
  "status": {
    "userInfo": {
      "name": "jane.doe",
      "uid": "b6c7cfd4-f166-11ec-8ea0-0242ac120002",
      "groups": [
        "viewers",
        "editors",
        "system:authenticated"
      ],
      "extra": {
        "provider_id": ["token.company.example"]
      }
    }
  }
}

For convenience, the kubectl auth whoami command is present. Executing this command will produce the following output (yet different user attributes will be shown):

  • Simple output example

    ATTRIBUTE         VALUE
    Username          jane.doe
    Groups            [system:authenticated]
    
  • Complex example including extra attributes

    ATTRIBUTE         VALUE
    Username          jane.doe
    UID               b79dbf30-0c6a-11ed-861d-0242ac120002
    Groups            [students teachers system:authenticated]
    Extra: skills     [reading learning]
    Extra: subjects   [math sports]
    

By providing the output flag, it is also possible to print the JSON or YAML representation of the result:

{
  "apiVersion": "authentication.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "SelfSubjectReview",
  "status": {
    "userInfo": {
      "username": "jane.doe",
      "uid": "b79dbf30-0c6a-11ed-861d-0242ac120002",
      "groups": [
        "students",
        "teachers",
        "system:authenticated"
      ],
      "extra": {
        "skills": [
          "reading",
          "learning"
        ],
        "subjects": [
          "math",
          "sports"
        ]
      }
    }
  }
}

apiVersion: authentication.k8s.io/v1
kind: SelfSubjectReview
status:
  userInfo:
    username: jane.doe
    uid: b79dbf30-0c6a-11ed-861d-0242ac120002
    groups:
    - students
    - teachers
    - system:authenticated
    extra:
      skills:
      - reading
      - learning
      subjects:
      - math
      - sports

This feature is extremely useful when a complicated authentication flow is used in a Kubernetes cluster, for example, if you use webhook token authentication or authenticating proxy.

By default, all authenticated users can create SelfSubjectReview objects when the APISelfSubjectReview feature is enabled. It is allowed by the system:basic-user cluster role.

What's next

2 - Authenticating with Bootstrap Tokens

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.18 [stable]

Bootstrap tokens are a simple bearer token that is meant to be used when creating new clusters or joining new nodes to an existing cluster. It was built to support kubeadm, but can be used in other contexts for users that wish to start clusters without kubeadm. It is also built to work, via RBAC policy, with the Kubelet TLS Bootstrapping system.

Bootstrap Tokens Overview

Bootstrap Tokens are defined with a specific type (bootstrap.kubernetes.io/token) of secrets that lives in the kube-system namespace. These Secrets are then read by the Bootstrap Authenticator in the API Server. Expired tokens are removed with the TokenCleaner controller in the Controller Manager. The tokens are also used to create a signature for a specific ConfigMap used in a "discovery" process through a BootstrapSigner controller.

Token Format

Bootstrap Tokens take the form of abcdef.0123456789abcdef. More formally, they must match the regular expression [a-z0-9]{6}\.[a-z0-9]{16}.

The first part of the token is the "Token ID" and is considered public information. It is used when referring to a token without leaking the secret part used for authentication. The second part is the "Token Secret" and should only be shared with trusted parties.

Enabling Bootstrap Token Authentication

The Bootstrap Token authenticator can be enabled using the following flag on the API server:

--enable-bootstrap-token-auth

When enabled, bootstrapping tokens can be used as bearer token credentials to authenticate requests against the API server.

Authorization: Bearer 07401b.f395accd246ae52d

Tokens authenticate as the username system:bootstrap:<token id> and are members of the group system:bootstrappers. Additional groups may be specified in the token's Secret.

Expired tokens can be deleted automatically by enabling the tokencleaner controller on the controller manager.

--controllers=*,tokencleaner

Bootstrap Token Secret Format

Each valid token is backed by a secret in the kube-system namespace. You can find the full design doc here.

Here is what the secret looks like.

apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
  # Name MUST be of form "bootstrap-token-<token id>"
  name: bootstrap-token-07401b
  namespace: kube-system

# Type MUST be 'bootstrap.kubernetes.io/token'
type: bootstrap.kubernetes.io/token
stringData:
  # Human readable description. Optional.
  description: "The default bootstrap token generated by 'kubeadm init'."

  # Token ID and secret. Required.
  token-id: 07401b
  token-secret: f395accd246ae52d

  # Expiration. Optional.
  expiration: 2017-03-10T03:22:11Z

  # Allowed usages.
  usage-bootstrap-authentication: "true"
  usage-bootstrap-signing: "true"

  # Extra groups to authenticate the token as. Must start with "system:bootstrappers:"
  auth-extra-groups: system:bootstrappers:worker,system:bootstrappers:ingress

The type of the secret must be bootstrap.kubernetes.io/token and the name must be bootstrap-token-<token id>. It must also exist in the kube-system namespace.

The usage-bootstrap-* members indicate what this secret is intended to be used for. A value must be set to true to be enabled.

  • usage-bootstrap-authentication indicates that the token can be used to authenticate to the API server as a bearer token.
  • usage-bootstrap-signing indicates that the token may be used to sign the cluster-info ConfigMap as described below.

The expiration field controls the expiry of the token. Expired tokens are rejected when used for authentication and ignored during ConfigMap signing. The expiry value is encoded as an absolute UTC time using RFC3339. Enable the tokencleaner controller to automatically delete expired tokens.

Token Management with kubeadm

You can use the kubeadm tool to manage tokens on a running cluster. See the kubeadm token docs for details.

ConfigMap Signing

In addition to authentication, the tokens can be used to sign a ConfigMap. This is used early in a cluster bootstrap process before the client trusts the API server. The signed ConfigMap can be authenticated by the shared token.

Enable ConfigMap signing by enabling the bootstrapsigner controller on the Controller Manager.

--controllers=*,bootstrapsigner

The ConfigMap that is signed is cluster-info in the kube-public namespace. The typical flow is that a client reads this ConfigMap while unauthenticated and ignoring TLS errors. It then validates the payload of the ConfigMap by looking at a signature embedded in the ConfigMap.

The ConfigMap may look like this:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: cluster-info
  namespace: kube-public
data:
  jws-kubeconfig-07401b: eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IjA3NDAxYiJ9..tYEfbo6zDNo40MQE07aZcQX2m3EB2rO3NuXtxVMYm9U
  kubeconfig: |
    apiVersion: v1
    clusters:
    - cluster:
        certificate-authority-data: <really long certificate data>
        server: https://10.138.0.2:6443
      name: ""
    contexts: []
    current-context: ""
    kind: Config
    preferences: {}
    users: []    

The kubeconfig member of the ConfigMap is a config file with only the cluster information filled out. The key thing being communicated here is the certificate-authority-data. This may be expanded in the future.

The signature is a JWS signature using the "detached" mode. To validate the signature, the user should encode the kubeconfig payload according to JWS rules (base64 encoded while discarding any trailing =). That encoded payload is then used to form a whole JWS by inserting it between the 2 dots. You can verify the JWS using the HS256 scheme (HMAC-SHA256) with the full token (e.g. 07401b.f395accd246ae52d) as the shared secret. Users must verify that HS256 is used.

Consult the kubeadm implementation details section for more information.

3 - Certificates and Certificate Signing Requests

Kubernetes certificate and trust bundle APIs enable automation of X.509 credential provisioning by providing a programmatic interface for clients of the Kubernetes API to request and obtain X.509 certificates from a Certificate Authority (CA).

There is also experimental (alpha) support for distributing trust bundles.

Certificate signing requests

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.19 [stable]

A CertificateSigningRequest (CSR) resource is used to request that a certificate be signed by a denoted signer, after which the request may be approved or denied before finally being signed.

Request signing process

The CertificateSigningRequest resource type allows a client to ask for an X.509 certificate be issued, based on a signing request. The CertificateSigningRequest object includes a PEM-encoded PKCS#10 signing request in the spec.request field. The CertificateSigningRequest denotes the signer (the recipient that the request is being made to) using the spec.signerName field. Note that spec.signerName is a required key after API version certificates.k8s.io/v1. In Kubernetes v1.22 and later, clients may optionally set the spec.expirationSeconds field to request a particular lifetime for the issued certificate. The minimum valid value for this field is 600, i.e. ten minutes.

Once created, a CertificateSigningRequest must be approved before it can be signed. Depending on the signer selected, a CertificateSigningRequest may be automatically approved by a controller. Otherwise, a CertificateSigningRequest must be manually approved either via the REST API (or client-go) or by running kubectl certificate approve. Likewise, a CertificateSigningRequest may also be denied, which tells the configured signer that it must not sign the request.

For certificates that have been approved, the next step is signing. The relevant signing controller first validates that the signing conditions are met and then creates a certificate. The signing controller then updates the CertificateSigningRequest, storing the new certificate into the status.certificate field of the existing CertificateSigningRequest object. The status.certificate field is either empty or contains a X.509 certificate, encoded in PEM format. The CertificateSigningRequest status.certificate field is empty until the signer does this.

Once the status.certificate field has been populated, the request has been completed and clients can now fetch the signed certificate PEM data from the CertificateSigningRequest resource. The signers can instead deny certificate signing if the approval conditions are not met.

In order to reduce the number of old CertificateSigningRequest resources left in a cluster, a garbage collection controller runs periodically. The garbage collection removes CertificateSigningRequests that have not changed state for some duration:

  • Approved requests: automatically deleted after 1 hour
  • Denied requests: automatically deleted after 1 hour
  • Failed requests: automatically deleted after 1 hour
  • Pending requests: automatically deleted after 24 hours
  • All requests: automatically deleted after the issued certificate has expired

Certificate signing authorization

To allow creating a CertificateSigningRequest and retrieving any CertificateSigningRequest:

  • Verbs: create, get, list, watch, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: certificatesigningrequests

For example:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: csr-creator
rules:
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - certificatesigningrequests
  verbs:
  - create
  - get
  - list
  - watch

To allow approving a CertificateSigningRequest:

  • Verbs: get, list, watch, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: certificatesigningrequests
  • Verbs: update, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: certificatesigningrequests/approval
  • Verbs: approve, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: signers, resourceName: <signerNameDomain>/<signerNamePath> or <signerNameDomain>/*

For example:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: csr-approver
rules:
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - certificatesigningrequests
  verbs:
  - get
  - list
  - watch
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - certificatesigningrequests/approval
  verbs:
  - update
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - signers
  resourceNames:
  - example.com/my-signer-name # example.com/* can be used to authorize for all signers in the 'example.com' domain
  verbs:
  - approve

To allow signing a CertificateSigningRequest:

  • Verbs: get, list, watch, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: certificatesigningrequests
  • Verbs: update, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: certificatesigningrequests/status
  • Verbs: sign, group: certificates.k8s.io, resource: signers, resourceName: <signerNameDomain>/<signerNamePath> or <signerNameDomain>/*
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: csr-signer
rules:
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - certificatesigningrequests
  verbs:
  - get
  - list
  - watch
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - certificatesigningrequests/status
  verbs:
  - update
- apiGroups:
  - certificates.k8s.io
  resources:
  - signers
  resourceNames:
  - example.com/my-signer-name # example.com/* can be used to authorize for all signers in the 'example.com' domain
  verbs:
  - sign

Signers

Signers abstractly represent the entity or entities that might sign, or have signed, a security certificate.

Any signer that is made available for outside a particular cluster should provide information about how the signer works, so that consumers can understand what that means for CertifcateSigningRequests and (if enabled) ClusterTrustBundles.
This includes:

  1. Trust distribution: how trust anchors (CA certificates or certificate bundles) are distributed.
  2. Permitted subjects: any restrictions on and behavior when a disallowed subject is requested.
  3. Permitted x509 extensions: including IP subjectAltNames, DNS subjectAltNames, Email subjectAltNames, URI subjectAltNames etc, and behavior when a disallowed extension is requested.
  4. Permitted key usages / extended key usages: any restrictions on and behavior when usages different than the signer-determined usages are specified in the CSR.
  5. Expiration/certificate lifetime: whether it is fixed by the signer, configurable by the admin, determined by the CSR spec.expirationSeconds field, etc and the behavior when the signer-determined expiration is different from the CSR spec.expirationSeconds field.
  6. CA bit allowed/disallowed: and behavior if a CSR contains a request a for a CA certificate when the signer does not permit it.

Commonly, the status.certificate field of a CertificateSigningRequest contains a single PEM-encoded X.509 certificate once the CSR is approved and the certificate is issued. Some signers store multiple certificates into the status.certificate field. In that case, the documentation for the signer should specify the meaning of additional certificates; for example, this might be the certificate plus intermediates to be presented during TLS handshakes.

If you want to make the trust anchor (root certificate) available, this should be done separately from a CertificateSigningRequest and its status.certificate field. For example, you could use a ClusterTrustBundle.

The PKCS#10 signing request format does not have a standard mechanism to specify a certificate expiration or lifetime. The expiration or lifetime therefore has to be set through the spec.expirationSeconds field of the CSR object. The built-in signers use the ClusterSigningDuration configuration option, which defaults to 1 year, (the --cluster-signing-duration command-line flag of the kube-controller-manager) as the default when no spec.expirationSeconds is specified. When spec.expirationSeconds is specified, the minimum of spec.expirationSeconds and ClusterSigningDuration is used.

Kubernetes signers

Kubernetes provides built-in signers that each have a well-known signerName:

  1. kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client: signs certificates that will be honored as client certificates by the API server. Never auto-approved by kube-controller-manager.

    1. Trust distribution: signed certificates must be honored as client certificates by the API server. The CA bundle is not distributed by any other means.
    2. Permitted subjects - no subject restrictions, but approvers and signers may choose not to approve or sign. Certain subjects like cluster-admin level users or groups vary between distributions and installations, but deserve additional scrutiny before approval and signing. The CertificateSubjectRestriction admission plugin is enabled by default to restrict system:masters, but it is often not the only cluster-admin subject in a cluster.
    3. Permitted x509 extensions - honors subjectAltName and key usage extensions and discards other extensions.
    4. Permitted key usages - must include ["client auth"]. Must not include key usages beyond ["digital signature", "key encipherment", "client auth"].
    5. Expiration/certificate lifetime - for the kube-controller-manager implementation of this signer, set to the minimum of the --cluster-signing-duration option or, if specified, the spec.expirationSeconds field of the CSR object.
    6. CA bit allowed/disallowed - not allowed.
  2. kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client-kubelet: signs client certificates that will be honored as client certificates by the API server. May be auto-approved by kube-controller-manager.

    1. Trust distribution: signed certificates must be honored as client certificates by the API server. The CA bundle is not distributed by any other means.
    2. Permitted subjects - organizations are exactly ["system:nodes"], common name starts with "system:node:".
    3. Permitted x509 extensions - honors key usage extensions, forbids subjectAltName extensions and drops other extensions.
    4. Permitted key usages - ["key encipherment", "digital signature", "client auth"] or ["digital signature", "client auth"].
    5. Expiration/certificate lifetime - for the kube-controller-manager implementation of this signer, set to the minimum of the --cluster-signing-duration option or, if specified, the spec.expirationSeconds field of the CSR object.
    6. CA bit allowed/disallowed - not allowed.
  3. kubernetes.io/kubelet-serving: signs serving certificates that are honored as a valid kubelet serving certificate by the API server, but has no other guarantees. Never auto-approved by kube-controller-manager.

    1. Trust distribution: signed certificates must be honored by the API server as valid to terminate connections to a kubelet. The CA bundle is not distributed by any other means.
    2. Permitted subjects - organizations are exactly ["system:nodes"], common name starts with "system:node:".
    3. Permitted x509 extensions - honors key usage and DNSName/IPAddress subjectAltName extensions, forbids EmailAddress and URI subjectAltName extensions, drops other extensions. At least one DNS or IP subjectAltName must be present.
    4. Permitted key usages - ["key encipherment", "digital signature", "server auth"] or ["digital signature", "server auth"].
    5. Expiration/certificate lifetime - for the kube-controller-manager implementation of this signer, set to the minimum of the --cluster-signing-duration option or, if specified, the spec.expirationSeconds field of the CSR object.
    6. CA bit allowed/disallowed - not allowed.
  4. kubernetes.io/legacy-unknown: has no guarantees for trust at all. Some third-party distributions of Kubernetes may honor client certificates signed by it. The stable CertificateSigningRequest API (version certificates.k8s.io/v1 and later) does not allow to set the signerName as kubernetes.io/legacy-unknown. Never auto-approved by kube-controller-manager.

    1. Trust distribution: None. There is no standard trust or distribution for this signer in a Kubernetes cluster.
    2. Permitted subjects - any
    3. Permitted x509 extensions - honors subjectAltName and key usage extensions and discards other extensions.
    4. Permitted key usages - any
    5. Expiration/certificate lifetime - for the kube-controller-manager implementation of this signer, set to the minimum of the --cluster-signing-duration option or, if specified, the spec.expirationSeconds field of the CSR object.
    6. CA bit allowed/disallowed - not allowed.

The kube-controller-manager implements control plane signing for each of the built in signers. Failures for all of these are only reported in kube-controller-manager logs.

Distribution of trust happens out of band for these signers. Any trust outside of those described above are strictly coincidental. For instance, some distributions may honor kubernetes.io/legacy-unknown as client certificates for the kube-apiserver, but this is not a standard. None of these usages are related to ServiceAccount token secrets .data[ca.crt] in any way. That CA bundle is only guaranteed to verify a connection to the API server using the default service (kubernetes.default.svc).

Custom signers

You can also introduce your own custom signer, which should have a similar prefixed name but using your own domain name. For example, if you represent an open source project that uses the domain open-fictional.example then you might use issuer.open-fictional.example/service-mesh as a signer name.

A custom signer uses the Kubernetes API to issue a certificate. See API-based signers.

Signing

Control plane signer

The Kubernetes control plane implements each of the Kubernetes signers, as part of the kube-controller-manager.

API-based signers

Users of the REST API can sign CSRs by submitting an UPDATE request to the status subresource of the CSR to be signed.

As part of this request, the status.certificate field should be set to contain the signed certificate. This field contains one or more PEM-encoded certificates.

All PEM blocks must have the "CERTIFICATE" label, contain no headers, and the encoded data must be a BER-encoded ASN.1 Certificate structure as described in section 4 of RFC5280.

Example certificate content:

-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
MIIDgjCCAmqgAwIBAgIUC1N1EJ4Qnsd322BhDPRwmg3b/oAwDQYJKoZIhvcNAQEL
BQAwXDELMAkGA1UEBhMCeHgxCjAIBgNVBAgMAXgxCjAIBgNVBAcMAXgxCjAIBgNV
BAoMAXgxCjAIBgNVBAsMAXgxCzAJBgNVBAMMAmNhMRAwDgYJKoZIhvcNAQkBFgF4
MB4XDTIwMDcwNjIyMDcwMFoXDTI1MDcwNTIyMDcwMFowNzEVMBMGA1UEChMMc3lz
dGVtOm5vZGVzMR4wHAYDVQQDExVzeXN0ZW06bm9kZToxMjcuMC4wLjEwggEiMA0G
CSqGSIb3DQEBAQUAA4IBDwAwggEKAoIBAQDne5X2eQ1JcLZkKvhzCR4Hxl9+ZmU3
+e1zfOywLdoQxrPi+o4hVsUH3q0y52BMa7u1yehHDRSaq9u62cmi5ekgXhXHzGmm
kmW5n0itRECv3SFsSm2DSghRKf0mm6iTYHWDHzUXKdm9lPPWoSOxoR5oqOsm3JEh
Q7Et13wrvTJqBMJo1GTwQuF+HYOku0NF/DLqbZIcpI08yQKyrBgYz2uO51/oNp8a
sTCsV4OUfyHhx2BBLUo4g4SptHFySTBwlpRWBnSjZPOhmN74JcpTLB4J5f4iEeA7
2QytZfADckG4wVkhH3C2EJUmRtFIBVirwDn39GXkSGlnvnMgF3uLZ6zNAgMBAAGj
YTBfMA4GA1UdDwEB/wQEAwIFoDATBgNVHSUEDDAKBggrBgEFBQcDAjAMBgNVHRMB
Af8EAjAAMB0GA1UdDgQWBBTREl2hW54lkQBDeVCcd2f2VSlB1DALBgNVHREEBDAC
ggAwDQYJKoZIhvcNAQELBQADggEBABpZjuIKTq8pCaX8dMEGPWtAykgLsTcD2jYr
L0/TCrqmuaaliUa42jQTt2OVsVP/L8ofFunj/KjpQU0bvKJPLMRKtmxbhXuQCQi1
qCRkp8o93mHvEz3mTUN+D1cfQ2fpsBENLnpS0F4G/JyY2Vrh19/X8+mImMEK5eOy
o0BMby7byUj98WmcUvNCiXbC6F45QTmkwEhMqWns0JZQY+/XeDhEcg+lJvz9Eyo2
aGgPsye1o3DpyXnyfJWAWMhOz7cikS5X2adesbgI86PhEHBXPIJ1v13ZdfCExmdd
M1fLPhLyR54fGaY+7/X8P9AZzPefAkwizeXwe9ii6/a08vWoiE4=
-----END CERTIFICATE-----

Non-PEM content may appear before or after the CERTIFICATE PEM blocks and is unvalidated, to allow for explanatory text as described in section 5.2 of RFC7468.

When encoded in JSON or YAML, this field is base-64 encoded. A CertificateSigningRequest containing the example certificate above would look like this:

apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
...
status:
  certificate: "LS0tLS1CRUdJTiBDRVJUSUZJQ0FURS0tLS0tCk1JS..."

Approval or rejection

Before a signer issues a certificate based on a CertificateSigningRequest, the signer typically checks that the issuance for that CSR has been approved.

Control plane automated approval

The kube-controller-manager ships with a built-in approver for certificates with a signerName of kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client-kubelet that delegates various permissions on CSRs for node credentials to authorization. The kube-controller-manager POSTs SubjectAccessReview resources to the API server in order to check authorization for certificate approval.

Approval or rejection using kubectl

A Kubernetes administrator (with appropriate permissions) can manually approve (or deny) CertificateSigningRequests by using the kubectl certificate approve and kubectl certificate deny commands.

To approve a CSR with kubectl:

kubectl certificate approve <certificate-signing-request-name>

Likewise, to deny a CSR:

kubectl certificate deny <certificate-signing-request-name>

Approval or rejection using the Kubernetes API

Users of the REST API can approve CSRs by submitting an UPDATE request to the approval subresource of the CSR to be approved. For example, you could write an operator that watches for a particular kind of CSR and then sends an UPDATE to approve them.

When you make an approval or rejection request, set either the Approved or Denied status condition based on the state you determine:

For Approved CSRs:

apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
...
status:
  conditions:
  - lastUpdateTime: "2020-02-08T11:37:35Z"
    lastTransitionTime: "2020-02-08T11:37:35Z"
    message: Approved by my custom approver controller
    reason: ApprovedByMyPolicy # You can set this to any string
    type: Approved

For Denied CSRs:

apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
...
status:
  conditions:
  - lastUpdateTime: "2020-02-08T11:37:35Z"
    lastTransitionTime: "2020-02-08T11:37:35Z"
    message: Denied by my custom approver controller
    reason: DeniedByMyPolicy # You can set this to any string
    type: Denied

It's usual to set status.conditions.reason to a machine-friendly reason code using TitleCase; this is a convention but you can set it to anything you like. If you want to add a note for human consumption, use the status.conditions.message field.

Cluster trust bundles

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.27 [alpha]

A ClusterTrustBundles is a cluster-scoped object for distributing X.509 trust anchors (root certificates) to workloads within the cluster. They're designed to work well with the signer concept from CertificateSigningRequests.

ClusterTrustBundles can be used in two modes: signer-linked and signer-unlinked.

Common properties and validation

All ClusterTrustBundle objects have strong validation on the contents of their trustBundle field. That field must contain one or more X.509 certificates, DER-serialized, each wrapped in a PEM CERTIFICATE block. The certificates must parse as valid X.509 certificates.

Esoteric PEM features like inter-block data and intra-block headers are either rejected during object validation, or can be ignored by consumers of the object. Additionally, consumers are allowed to reorder the certificates in the bundle with their own arbitrary but stable ordering.

ClusterTrustBundle objects should be considered world-readable within the cluster. If your cluster uses RBAC authorization, all ServiceAccounts have a default grant that allows them to get, list, and watch all ClusterTrustBundle objects. If you use your own authorization mechanism and you have enabled ClusterTrustBundles in your cluster, you should set up an equivalent rule to make these objects public within the cluster, so that they work as intended.

If you do not have permission to list cluster trust bundles by default in your cluster, you can impersonate a service account you have access to in order to see available ClusterTrustBundles:

kubectl get clustertrustbundles --as='system:serviceaccount:mynamespace:default'

Signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles

Signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles are associated with a signer name, like this:

apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: ClusterTrustBundle
metadata:
  name: example.com:mysigner:foo
spec:
  signerName: example.com/mysigner
  trustBundle: "<... PEM data ...>"

These ClusterTrustBundles are intended to be maintained by a signer-specific controller in the cluster, so they have several security features:

  • To create or update a signer-linked ClusterTrustBundle, you must be permitted to attest on the signer (custom authorization verb attest, API group certificates.k8s.io; resource path signers). You can configure authorization for the specific resource name <signerNameDomain>/<signerNamePath> or match a pattern such as <signerNameDomain>/*.
  • Signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles must be named with a prefix derived from their spec.signerName field. Slashes (/) are replaced with colons (:), and a final colon is appended. This is followed by an arbitrary name. For example, the signer example.com/mysigner can be linked to a ClusterTrustBundle example.com:mysigner:<arbitrary-name>.

Signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles will typically be consumed in workloads by a combination of a field selector on the signer name, and a separate label selector.

Signer-unlinked ClusterTrustBundles

Signer-unlinked ClusterTrustBundles have an empty spec.signerName field, like this:

apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: ClusterTrustBundle
metadata:
  name: foo
spec:
  # no signerName specified, so the field is blank
  trustBundle: "<... PEM data ...>"

They are primarily intended for cluster configuration use cases. Each signer-unlinked ClusterTrustBundle is an independent object, in contrast to the customary grouping behavior of signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles.

Signer-unlinked ClusterTrustBundles have no attest verb requirement. Instead, you control access to them directly using the usual mechanisms, such as role-based access control.

To distinguish them from signer-linked ClusterTrustBundles, the names of signer-unlinked ClusterTrustBundles must not contain a colon (:).

Accessing ClusterTrustBundles from pods

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.29 [alpha]

The contents of ClusterTrustBundles can be injected into the container filesystem, similar to ConfigMaps and Secrets. See the clusterTrustBundle projected volume source for more details.

How to issue a certificate for a user

A few steps are required in order to get a normal user to be able to authenticate and invoke an API. First, this user must have a certificate issued by the Kubernetes cluster, and then present that certificate to the Kubernetes API.

Create private key

The following scripts show how to generate PKI private key and CSR. It is important to set CN and O attribute of the CSR. CN is the name of the user and O is the group that this user will belong to. You can refer to RBAC for standard groups.

openssl genrsa -out myuser.key 2048
openssl req -new -key myuser.key -out myuser.csr -subj "/CN=myuser"

Create a CertificateSigningRequest

Create a CertificateSigningRequest and submit it to a Kubernetes Cluster via kubectl. Below is a script to generate the CertificateSigningRequest.

cat <<EOF | kubectl apply -f -
apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
metadata:
  name: myuser
spec:
  request: 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
  signerName: kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client
  expirationSeconds: 86400  # one day
  usages:
  - client auth
EOF

Some points to note:

  • usages has to be 'client auth'

  • expirationSeconds could be made longer (i.e. 864000 for ten days) or shorter (i.e. 3600 for one hour)

  • request is the base64 encoded value of the CSR file content. You can get the content using this command:

    cat myuser.csr | base64 | tr -d "\n"
    

Approve the CertificateSigningRequest

Use kubectl to create a CSR and approve it.

Get the list of CSRs:

kubectl get csr

Approve the CSR:

kubectl certificate approve myuser

Get the certificate

Retrieve the certificate from the CSR:

kubectl get csr/myuser -o yaml

The certificate value is in Base64-encoded format under status.certificate.

Export the issued certificate from the CertificateSigningRequest.

kubectl get csr myuser -o jsonpath='{.status.certificate}'| base64 -d > myuser.crt

Create Role and RoleBinding

With the certificate created it is time to define the Role and RoleBinding for this user to access Kubernetes cluster resources.

This is a sample command to create a Role for this new user:

kubectl create role developer --verb=create --verb=get --verb=list --verb=update --verb=delete --resource=pods

This is a sample command to create a RoleBinding for this new user:

kubectl create rolebinding developer-binding-myuser --role=developer --user=myuser

Add to kubeconfig

The last step is to add this user into the kubeconfig file.

First, you need to add new credentials:

kubectl config set-credentials myuser --client-key=myuser.key --client-certificate=myuser.crt --embed-certs=true

Then, you need to add the context:

kubectl config set-context myuser --cluster=kubernetes --user=myuser

To test it, change the context to myuser:

kubectl config use-context myuser

What's next

4 - Admission Controllers Reference

This page provides an overview of Admission Controllers.

What are they?

An admission controller is a piece of code that intercepts requests to the Kubernetes API server prior to persistence of the object, but after the request is authenticated and authorized.

Admission controllers may be validating, mutating, or both. Mutating controllers may modify objects related to the requests they admit; validating controllers may not.

Admission controllers limit requests to create, delete, modify objects. Admission controllers can also block custom verbs, such as a request connect to a Pod via an API server proxy. Admission controllers do not (and cannot) block requests to read (get, watch or list) objects.

The admission controllers in Kubernetes 1.29 consist of the list below, are compiled into the kube-apiserver binary, and may only be configured by the cluster administrator. In that list, there are two special controllers: MutatingAdmissionWebhook and ValidatingAdmissionWebhook. These execute the mutating and validating (respectively) admission control webhooks which are configured in the API.

Admission control phases

The admission control process proceeds in two phases. In the first phase, mutating admission controllers are run. In the second phase, validating admission controllers are run. Note again that some of the controllers are both.

If any of the controllers in either phase reject the request, the entire request is rejected immediately and an error is returned to the end-user.

Finally, in addition to sometimes mutating the object in question, admission controllers may sometimes have side effects, that is, mutate related resources as part of request processing. Incrementing quota usage is the canonical example of why this is necessary. Any such side-effect needs a corresponding reclamation or reconciliation process, as a given admission controller does not know for sure that a given request will pass all of the other admission controllers.

Why do I need them?

Several important features of Kubernetes require an admission controller to be enabled in order to properly support the feature. As a result, a Kubernetes API server that is not properly configured with the right set of admission controllers is an incomplete server and will not support all the features you expect.

How do I turn on an admission controller?

The Kubernetes API server flag enable-admission-plugins takes a comma-delimited list of admission control plugins to invoke prior to modifying objects in the cluster. For example, the following command line enables the NamespaceLifecycle and the LimitRanger admission control plugins:

kube-apiserver --enable-admission-plugins=NamespaceLifecycle,LimitRanger ...

How do I turn off an admission controller?

The Kubernetes API server flag disable-admission-plugins takes a comma-delimited list of admission control plugins to be disabled, even if they are in the list of plugins enabled by default.

kube-apiserver --disable-admission-plugins=PodNodeSelector,AlwaysDeny ...

Which plugins are enabled by default?

To see which admission plugins are enabled:

kube-apiserver -h | grep enable-admission-plugins

In Kubernetes 1.29, the default ones are:

CertificateApproval, CertificateSigning, CertificateSubjectRestriction, DefaultIngressClass, DefaultStorageClass, DefaultTolerationSeconds, LimitRanger, MutatingAdmissionWebhook, NamespaceLifecycle, PersistentVolumeClaimResize, PodSecurity, Priority, ResourceQuota, RuntimeClass, ServiceAccount, StorageObjectInUseProtection, TaintNodesByCondition, ValidatingAdmissionPolicy, ValidatingAdmissionWebhook

What does each admission controller do?

AlwaysAdmit

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.13 [deprecated]

Type: Validating.

This admission controller allows all pods into the cluster. It is deprecated because its behavior is the same as if there were no admission controller at all.

AlwaysDeny

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.13 [deprecated]

Type: Validating.

Rejects all requests. AlwaysDeny is deprecated as it has no real meaning.

AlwaysPullImages

Type: Mutating and Validating.

This admission controller modifies every new Pod to force the image pull policy to Always. This is useful in a multitenant cluster so that users can be assured that their private images can only be used by those who have the credentials to pull them. Without this admission controller, once an image has been pulled to a node, any pod from any user can use it by knowing the image's name (assuming the Pod is scheduled onto the right node), without any authorization check against the image. When this admission controller is enabled, images are always pulled prior to starting containers, which means valid credentials are required.

CertificateApproval

Type: Validating.

This admission controller observes requests to approve CertificateSigningRequest resources and performs additional authorization checks to ensure the approving user has permission to approve certificate requests with the spec.signerName requested on the CertificateSigningRequest resource.

See Certificate Signing Requests for more information on the permissions required to perform different actions on CertificateSigningRequest resources.

CertificateSigning

Type: Validating.

This admission controller observes updates to the status.certificate field of CertificateSigningRequest resources and performs an additional authorization checks to ensure the signing user has permission to sign certificate requests with the spec.signerName requested on the CertificateSigningRequest resource.

See Certificate Signing Requests for more information on the permissions required to perform different actions on CertificateSigningRequest resources.

CertificateSubjectRestriction

Type: Validating.

This admission controller observes creation of CertificateSigningRequest resources that have a spec.signerName of kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client. It rejects any request that specifies a 'group' (or 'organization attribute') of system:masters.

DefaultIngressClass

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller observes creation of Ingress objects that do not request any specific ingress class and automatically adds a default ingress class to them. This way, users that do not request any special ingress class do not need to care about them at all and they will get the default one.

This admission controller does not do anything when no default ingress class is configured. When more than one ingress class is marked as default, it rejects any creation of Ingress with an error and an administrator must revisit their IngressClass objects and mark only one as default (with the annotation "ingressclass.kubernetes.io/is-default-class"). This admission controller ignores any Ingress updates; it acts only on creation.

See the Ingress documentation for more about ingress classes and how to mark one as default.

DefaultStorageClass

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller observes creation of PersistentVolumeClaim objects that do not request any specific storage class and automatically adds a default storage class to them. This way, users that do not request any special storage class do not need to care about them at all and they will get the default one.

This admission controller does not do anything when no default storage class is configured. When more than one storage class is marked as default, it rejects any creation of PersistentVolumeClaim with an error and an administrator must revisit their StorageClass objects and mark only one as default. This admission controller ignores any PersistentVolumeClaim updates; it acts only on creation.

See persistent volume documentation about persistent volume claims and storage classes and how to mark a storage class as default.

DefaultTolerationSeconds

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller sets the default forgiveness toleration for pods to tolerate the taints notready:NoExecute and unreachable:NoExecute based on the k8s-apiserver input parameters default-not-ready-toleration-seconds and default-unreachable-toleration-seconds if the pods don't already have toleration for taints node.kubernetes.io/not-ready:NoExecute or node.kubernetes.io/unreachable:NoExecute. The default value for default-not-ready-toleration-seconds and default-unreachable-toleration-seconds is 5 minutes.

DenyServiceExternalIPs

Type: Validating.

This admission controller rejects all net-new usage of the Service field externalIPs. This feature is very powerful (allows network traffic interception) and not well controlled by policy. When enabled, users of the cluster may not create new Services which use externalIPs and may not add new values to externalIPs on existing Service objects. Existing uses of externalIPs are not affected, and users may remove values from externalIPs on existing Service objects.

Most users do not need this feature at all, and cluster admins should consider disabling it. Clusters that do need to use this feature should consider using some custom policy to manage usage of it.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

EventRateLimit

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.13 [alpha]

Type: Validating.

This admission controller mitigates the problem where the API server gets flooded by requests to store new Events. The cluster admin can specify event rate limits by:

  • Enabling the EventRateLimit admission controller;
  • Referencing an EventRateLimit configuration file from the file provided to the API server's command line flag --admission-control-config-file:
apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
  - name: EventRateLimit
    path: eventconfig.yaml
...

There are four types of limits that can be specified in the configuration:

  • Server: All Event requests (creation or modifications) received by the API server share a single bucket.
  • Namespace: Each namespace has a dedicated bucket.
  • User: Each user is allocated a bucket.
  • SourceAndObject: A bucket is assigned by each combination of source and involved object of the event.

Below is a sample eventconfig.yaml for such a configuration:

apiVersion: eventratelimit.admission.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: Configuration
limits:
  - type: Namespace
    qps: 50
    burst: 100
    cacheSize: 2000
  - type: User
    qps: 10
    burst: 50

See the EventRateLimit Config API (v1alpha1) for more details.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

ExtendedResourceToleration

Type: Mutating.

This plug-in facilitates creation of dedicated nodes with extended resources. If operators want to create dedicated nodes with extended resources (like GPUs, FPGAs etc.), they are expected to taint the node with the extended resource name as the key. This admission controller, if enabled, automatically adds tolerations for such taints to pods requesting extended resources, so users don't have to manually add these tolerations.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

ImagePolicyWebhook

Type: Validating.

The ImagePolicyWebhook admission controller allows a backend webhook to make admission decisions.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

Configuration file format

ImagePolicyWebhook uses a configuration file to set options for the behavior of the backend. This file may be json or yaml and has the following format:

imagePolicy:
  kubeConfigFile: /path/to/kubeconfig/for/backend
  # time in s to cache approval
  allowTTL: 50
  # time in s to cache denial
  denyTTL: 50
  # time in ms to wait between retries
  retryBackoff: 500
  # determines behavior if the webhook backend fails
  defaultAllow: true

Reference the ImagePolicyWebhook configuration file from the file provided to the API server's command line flag --admission-control-config-file:

apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
  - name: ImagePolicyWebhook
    path: imagepolicyconfig.yaml
...

Alternatively, you can embed the configuration directly in the file:

apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
  - name: ImagePolicyWebhook
    configuration:
      imagePolicy:
        kubeConfigFile: <path-to-kubeconfig-file>
        allowTTL: 50
        denyTTL: 50
        retryBackoff: 500
        defaultAllow: true

The ImagePolicyWebhook config file must reference a kubeconfig formatted file which sets up the connection to the backend. It is required that the backend communicate over TLS.

The kubeconfig file's cluster field must point to the remote service, and the user field must contain the returned authorizer.

# clusters refers to the remote service.
clusters:
  - name: name-of-remote-imagepolicy-service
    cluster:
      certificate-authority: /path/to/ca.pem    # CA for verifying the remote service.
      server: https://images.example.com/policy # URL of remote service to query. Must use 'https'.

# users refers to the API server's webhook configuration.
users:
  - name: name-of-api-server
    user:
      client-certificate: /path/to/cert.pem # cert for the webhook admission controller to use
      client-key: /path/to/key.pem          # key matching the cert

For additional HTTP configuration, refer to the kubeconfig documentation.

Request payloads

When faced with an admission decision, the API Server POSTs a JSON serialized imagepolicy.k8s.io/v1alpha1 ImageReview object describing the action. This object contains fields describing the containers being admitted, as well as any pod annotations that match *.image-policy.k8s.io/*.

An example request body:

{
  "apiVersion": "imagepolicy.k8s.io/v1alpha1",
  "kind": "ImageReview",
  "spec": {
    "containers": [
      {
        "image": "myrepo/myimage:v1"
      },
      {
        "image": "myrepo/myimage@sha256:beb6bd6a68f114c1dc2ea4b28db81bdf91de202a9014972bec5e4d9171d90ed"
      }
    ],
    "annotations": {
      "mycluster.image-policy.k8s.io/ticket-1234": "break-glass"
    },
    "namespace": "mynamespace"
  }
}

The remote service is expected to fill the status field of the request and respond to either allow or disallow access. The response body's spec field is ignored, and may be omitted. A permissive response would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "imagepolicy.k8s.io/v1alpha1",
  "kind": "ImageReview",
  "status": {
    "allowed": true
  }
}

To disallow access, the service would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "imagepolicy.k8s.io/v1alpha1",
  "kind": "ImageReview",
  "status": {
    "allowed": false,
    "reason": "image currently blacklisted"
  }
}

For further documentation refer to the imagepolicy.v1alpha1 API.

Extending with Annotations

All annotations on a Pod that match *.image-policy.k8s.io/* are sent to the webhook. Sending annotations allows users who are aware of the image policy backend to send extra information to it, and for different backends implementations to accept different information.

Examples of information you might put here are:

  • request to "break glass" to override a policy, in case of emergency.
  • a ticket number from a ticket system that documents the break-glass request
  • provide a hint to the policy server as to the imageID of the image being provided, to save it a lookup

In any case, the annotations are provided by the user and are not validated by Kubernetes in any way.

LimitPodHardAntiAffinityTopology

Type: Validating.

This admission controller denies any pod that defines AntiAffinity topology key other than kubernetes.io/hostname in requiredDuringSchedulingRequiredDuringExecution.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

LimitRanger

Type: Mutating and Validating.

This admission controller will observe the incoming request and ensure that it does not violate any of the constraints enumerated in the LimitRange object in a Namespace. If you are using LimitRange objects in your Kubernetes deployment, you MUST use this admission controller to enforce those constraints. LimitRanger can also be used to apply default resource requests to Pods that don't specify any; currently, the default LimitRanger applies a 0.1 CPU requirement to all Pods in the default namespace.

See the LimitRange API reference and the example of LimitRange for more details.

MutatingAdmissionWebhook

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller calls any mutating webhooks which match the request. Matching webhooks are called in serial; each one may modify the object if it desires.

This admission controller (as implied by the name) only runs in the mutating phase.

If a webhook called by this has side effects (for example, decrementing quota) it must have a reconciliation system, as it is not guaranteed that subsequent webhooks or validating admission controllers will permit the request to finish.

If you disable the MutatingAdmissionWebhook, you must also disable the MutatingWebhookConfiguration object in the admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1 group/version via the --runtime-config flag, both are on by default.

Use caution when authoring and installing mutating webhooks

  • Users may be confused when the objects they try to create are different from what they get back.
  • Built in control loops may break when the objects they try to create are different when read back.
    • Setting originally unset fields is less likely to cause problems than overwriting fields set in the original request. Avoid doing the latter.
  • Future changes to control loops for built-in resources or third-party resources may break webhooks that work well today. Even when the webhook installation API is finalized, not all possible webhook behaviors will be guaranteed to be supported indefinitely.

NamespaceAutoProvision

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller examines all incoming requests on namespaced resources and checks if the referenced namespace does exist. It creates a namespace if it cannot be found. This admission controller is useful in deployments that do not want to restrict creation of a namespace prior to its usage.

NamespaceExists

Type: Validating.

This admission controller checks all requests on namespaced resources other than Namespace itself. If the namespace referenced from a request doesn't exist, the request is rejected.

NamespaceLifecycle

Type: Validating.

This admission controller enforces that a Namespace that is undergoing termination cannot have new objects created in it, and ensures that requests in a non-existent Namespace are rejected. This admission controller also prevents deletion of three system reserved namespaces default, kube-system, kube-public.

A Namespace deletion kicks off a sequence of operations that remove all objects (pods, services, etc.) in that namespace. In order to enforce integrity of that process, we strongly recommend running this admission controller.

NodeRestriction

Type: Validating.

This admission controller limits the Node and Pod objects a kubelet can modify. In order to be limited by this admission controller, kubelets must use credentials in the system:nodes group, with a username in the form system:node:<nodeName>. Such kubelets will only be allowed to modify their own Node API object, and only modify Pod API objects that are bound to their node. kubelets are not allowed to update or remove taints from their Node API object.

The NodeRestriction admission plugin prevents kubelets from deleting their Node API object, and enforces kubelet modification of labels under the kubernetes.io/ or k8s.io/ prefixes as follows:

  • Prevents kubelets from adding/removing/updating labels with a node-restriction.kubernetes.io/ prefix. This label prefix is reserved for administrators to label their Node objects for workload isolation purposes, and kubelets will not be allowed to modify labels with that prefix.
  • Allows kubelets to add/remove/update these labels and label prefixes:
    • kubernetes.io/hostname
    • kubernetes.io/arch
    • kubernetes.io/os
    • beta.kubernetes.io/instance-type
    • node.kubernetes.io/instance-type
    • failure-domain.beta.kubernetes.io/region (deprecated)
    • failure-domain.beta.kubernetes.io/zone (deprecated)
    • topology.kubernetes.io/region
    • topology.kubernetes.io/zone
    • kubelet.kubernetes.io/-prefixed labels
    • node.kubernetes.io/-prefixed labels

Use of any other labels under the kubernetes.io or k8s.io prefixes by kubelets is reserved, and may be disallowed or allowed by the NodeRestriction admission plugin in the future.

Future versions may add additional restrictions to ensure kubelets have the minimal set of permissions required to operate correctly.

OwnerReferencesPermissionEnforcement

Type: Validating.

This admission controller protects the access to the metadata.ownerReferences of an object so that only users with delete permission to the object can change it. This admission controller also protects the access to metadata.ownerReferences[x].blockOwnerDeletion of an object, so that only users with update permission to the finalizers subresource of the referenced owner can change it.

PersistentVolumeClaimResize

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.24 [stable]

Type: Validating.

This admission controller implements additional validations for checking incoming PersistentVolumeClaim resize requests.

Enabling the PersistentVolumeClaimResize admission controller is recommended. This admission controller prevents resizing of all claims by default unless a claim's StorageClass explicitly enables resizing by setting allowVolumeExpansion to true.

For example: all PersistentVolumeClaims created from the following StorageClass support volume expansion:

apiVersion: storage.k8s.io/v1
kind: StorageClass
metadata:
  name: gluster-vol-default
provisioner: kubernetes.io/glusterfs
parameters:
  resturl: "http://192.168.10.100:8080"
  restuser: ""
  secretNamespace: ""
  secretName: ""
allowVolumeExpansion: true

For more information about persistent volume claims, see PersistentVolumeClaims.

PersistentVolumeLabel

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.13 [deprecated]

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller automatically attaches region or zone labels to PersistentVolumes as defined by the cloud provider (for example, Azure or GCP). It helps ensure the Pods and the PersistentVolumes mounted are in the same region and/or zone. If the admission controller doesn't support automatic labelling your PersistentVolumes, you may need to add the labels manually to prevent pods from mounting volumes from a different zone. PersistentVolumeLabel is deprecated as labeling for persistent volumes has been taken over by the cloud-controller-manager.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

PodNodeSelector

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.5 [alpha]

Type: Validating.

This admission controller defaults and limits what node selectors may be used within a namespace by reading a namespace annotation and a global configuration.

This admission controller is disabled by default.

Configuration file format

PodNodeSelector uses a configuration file to set options for the behavior of the backend. Note that the configuration file format will move to a versioned file in a future release. This file may be json or yaml and has the following format:

podNodeSelectorPluginConfig:
  clusterDefaultNodeSelector: name-of-node-selector
  namespace1: name-of-node-selector
  namespace2: name-of-node-selector

Reference the PodNodeSelector configuration file from the file provided to the API server's command line flag --admission-control-config-file:

apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
- name: PodNodeSelector
  path: podnodeselector.yaml
...

Configuration Annotation Format

PodNodeSelector uses the annotation key scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/node-selector to assign node selectors to namespaces.

apiVersion: v1
kind: Namespace
metadata:
  annotations:
    scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/node-selector: name-of-node-selector
  name: namespace3

Internal Behavior

This admission controller has the following behavior:

  1. If the Namespace has an annotation with a key scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/node-selector, use its value as the node selector.
  2. If the namespace lacks such an annotation, use the clusterDefaultNodeSelector defined in the PodNodeSelector plugin configuration file as the node selector.
  3. Evaluate the pod's node selector against the namespace node selector for conflicts. Conflicts result in rejection.
  4. Evaluate the pod's node selector against the namespace-specific allowed selector defined the plugin configuration file. Conflicts result in rejection.

PodSecurity

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.25 [stable]

Type: Validating.

The PodSecurity admission controller checks new Pods before they are admitted, determines if it should be admitted based on the requested security context and the restrictions on permitted Pod Security Standards for the namespace that the Pod would be in.

See the Pod Security Admission documentation for more information.

PodSecurity replaced an older admission controller named PodSecurityPolicy.

PodTolerationRestriction

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.7 [alpha]

Type: Mutating and Validating.

The PodTolerationRestriction admission controller verifies any conflict between tolerations of a pod and the tolerations of its namespace. It rejects the pod request if there is a conflict. It then merges the tolerations annotated on the namespace into the tolerations of the pod. The resulting tolerations are checked against a list of allowed tolerations annotated to the namespace. If the check succeeds, the pod request is admitted otherwise it is rejected.

If the namespace of the pod does not have any associated default tolerations or allowed tolerations annotated, the cluster-level default tolerations or cluster-level list of allowed tolerations are used instead if they are specified.

Tolerations to a namespace are assigned via the scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/defaultTolerations annotation key. The list of allowed tolerations can be added via the scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/tolerationsWhitelist annotation key.

Example for namespace annotations:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Namespace
metadata:
  name: apps-that-need-nodes-exclusively
  annotations:
    scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/defaultTolerations: '[{"operator": "Exists", "effect": "NoSchedule", "key": "dedicated-node"}]'
    scheduler.alpha.kubernetes.io/tolerationsWhitelist: '[{"operator": "Exists", "effect": "NoSchedule", "key": "dedicated-node"}]'

This admission controller is disabled by default.

Priority

Type: Mutating and Validating.

The priority admission controller uses the priorityClassName field and populates the integer value of the priority. If the priority class is not found, the Pod is rejected.

ResourceQuota

Type: Validating.

This admission controller will observe the incoming request and ensure that it does not violate any of the constraints enumerated in the ResourceQuota object in a Namespace. If you are using ResourceQuota objects in your Kubernetes deployment, you MUST use this admission controller to enforce quota constraints.

See the ResourceQuota API reference and the example of Resource Quota for more details.

RuntimeClass

Type: Mutating and Validating.

If you define a RuntimeClass with Pod overhead configured, this admission controller checks incoming Pods. When enabled, this admission controller rejects any Pod create requests that have the overhead already set. For Pods that have a RuntimeClass configured and selected in their .spec, this admission controller sets .spec.overhead in the Pod based on the value defined in the corresponding RuntimeClass.

See also Pod Overhead for more information.

SecurityContextDeny

Type: Validating.

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.27 [deprecated]

This admission controller will deny any Pod that attempts to set the following SecurityContext fields:

  • .spec.securityContext.supplementalGroups
  • .spec.securityContext.seLinuxOptions
  • .spec.securityContext.runAsUser
  • .spec.securityContext.fsGroup
  • .spec.(init)Containers[*].securityContext.seLinuxOptions
  • .spec.(init)Containers[*].securityContext.runAsUser

For more historical context on this plugin, see The birth of PodSecurityPolicy from the Kubernetes blog article about PodSecurityPolicy and its removal. The article details the PodSecurityPolicy historical context and the birth of the securityContext field for Pods.

ServiceAccount

Type: Mutating and Validating.

This admission controller implements automation for serviceAccounts. The Kubernetes project strongly recommends enabling this admission controller. You should enable this admission controller if you intend to make any use of Kubernetes ServiceAccount objects.

Regarding the annotation kubernetes.io/enforce-mountable-secrets: While the annotation's name suggests it only concerns the mounting of Secrets, its enforcement also extends to other ways Secrets are used in the context of a Pod. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that all the referenced secrets are correctly specified in the ServiceAccount.

StorageObjectInUseProtection

Type: Mutating.

The StorageObjectInUseProtection plugin adds the kubernetes.io/pvc-protection or kubernetes.io/pv-protection finalizers to newly created Persistent Volume Claims (PVCs) or Persistent Volumes (PV). In case a user deletes a PVC or PV the PVC or PV is not removed until the finalizer is removed from the PVC or PV by PVC or PV Protection Controller. Refer to the Storage Object in Use Protection for more detailed information.

TaintNodesByCondition

Type: Mutating.

This admission controller taints newly created Nodes as NotReady and NoSchedule. That tainting avoids a race condition that could cause Pods to be scheduled on new Nodes before their taints were updated to accurately reflect their reported conditions.

ValidatingAdmissionPolicy

Type: Validating.

This admission controller implements the CEL validation for incoming matched requests. It is enabled when both feature gate validatingadmissionpolicy and admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1alpha1 group/version are enabled. If any of the ValidatingAdmissionPolicy fails, the request fails.

ValidatingAdmissionWebhook

Type: Validating.

This admission controller calls any validating webhooks which match the request. Matching webhooks are called in parallel; if any of them rejects the request, the request fails. This admission controller only runs in the validation phase; the webhooks it calls may not mutate the object, as opposed to the webhooks called by the MutatingAdmissionWebhook admission controller.

If a webhook called by this has side effects (for example, decrementing quota) it must have a reconciliation system, as it is not guaranteed that subsequent webhooks or other validating admission controllers will permit the request to finish.

If you disable the ValidatingAdmissionWebhook, you must also disable the ValidatingWebhookConfiguration object in the admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1 group/version via the --runtime-config flag.

Yes. The recommended admission controllers are enabled by default (shown here), so you do not need to explicitly specify them. You can enable additional admission controllers beyond the default set using the --enable-admission-plugins flag (order doesn't matter).

5 - Dynamic Admission Control

In addition to compiled-in admission plugins, admission plugins can be developed as extensions and run as webhooks configured at runtime. This page describes how to build, configure, use, and monitor admission webhooks.

What are admission webhooks?

Admission webhooks are HTTP callbacks that receive admission requests and do something with them. You can define two types of admission webhooks, validating admission webhook and mutating admission webhook. Mutating admission webhooks are invoked first, and can modify objects sent to the API server to enforce custom defaults. After all object modifications are complete, and after the incoming object is validated by the API server, validating admission webhooks are invoked and can reject requests to enforce custom policies.

Experimenting with admission webhooks

Admission webhooks are essentially part of the cluster control-plane. You should write and deploy them with great caution. Please read the user guides for instructions if you intend to write/deploy production-grade admission webhooks. In the following, we describe how to quickly experiment with admission webhooks.

Prerequisites

  • Ensure that MutatingAdmissionWebhook and ValidatingAdmissionWebhook admission controllers are enabled. Here is a recommended set of admission controllers to enable in general.

  • Ensure that the admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1 API is enabled.

Write an admission webhook server

Please refer to the implementation of the admission webhook server that is validated in a Kubernetes e2e test. The webhook handles the AdmissionReview request sent by the API servers, and sends back its decision as an AdmissionReview object in the same version it received.

See the webhook request section for details on the data sent to webhooks.

See the webhook response section for the data expected from webhooks.

The example admission webhook server leaves the ClientAuth field empty, which defaults to NoClientCert. This means that the webhook server does not authenticate the identity of the clients, supposedly API servers. If you need mutual TLS or other ways to authenticate the clients, see how to authenticate API servers.

Deploy the admission webhook service

The webhook server in the e2e test is deployed in the Kubernetes cluster, via the deployment API. The test also creates a service as the front-end of the webhook server. See code.

You may also deploy your webhooks outside of the cluster. You will need to update your webhook configurations accordingly.

Configure admission webhooks on the fly

You can dynamically configure what resources are subject to what admission webhooks via ValidatingWebhookConfiguration or MutatingWebhookConfiguration.

The following is an example ValidatingWebhookConfiguration, a mutating webhook configuration is similar. See the webhook configuration section for details about each config field.

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
metadata:
  name: "pod-policy.example.com"
webhooks:
- name: "pod-policy.example.com"
  rules:
  - apiGroups:   [""]
    apiVersions: ["v1"]
    operations:  ["CREATE"]
    resources:   ["pods"]
    scope:       "Namespaced"
  clientConfig:
    service:
      namespace: "example-namespace"
      name: "example-service"
    caBundle: <CA_BUNDLE>
  admissionReviewVersions: ["v1"]
  sideEffects: None
  timeoutSeconds: 5

The scope field specifies if only cluster-scoped resources ("Cluster") or namespace-scoped resources ("Namespaced") will match this rule. "∗" means that there are no scope restrictions.

When an API server receives a request that matches one of the rules, the API server sends an admissionReview request to webhook as specified in the clientConfig.

After you create the webhook configuration, the system will take a few seconds to honor the new configuration.

Authenticate API servers

If your admission webhooks require authentication, you can configure the API servers to use basic auth, bearer token, or a cert to authenticate itself to the webhooks. There are three steps to complete the configuration.

  • When starting the API server, specify the location of the admission control configuration file via the --admission-control-config-file flag.

  • In the admission control configuration file, specify where the MutatingAdmissionWebhook controller and ValidatingAdmissionWebhook controller should read the credentials. The credentials are stored in kubeConfig files (yes, the same schema that's used by kubectl), so the field name is kubeConfigFile. Here is an example admission control configuration file:

apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
- name: ValidatingAdmissionWebhook
  configuration:
    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
    kind: WebhookAdmissionConfiguration
    kubeConfigFile: "<path-to-kubeconfig-file>"
- name: MutatingAdmissionWebhook
  configuration:
    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
    kind: WebhookAdmissionConfiguration
    kubeConfigFile: "<path-to-kubeconfig-file>"

# Deprecated in v1.17 in favor of apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
apiVersion: apiserver.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
- name: ValidatingAdmissionWebhook
  configuration:
    # Deprecated in v1.17 in favor of apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1, kind=WebhookAdmissionConfiguration
    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
    kind: WebhookAdmission
    kubeConfigFile: "<path-to-kubeconfig-file>"
- name: MutatingAdmissionWebhook
  configuration:
    # Deprecated in v1.17 in favor of apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1, kind=WebhookAdmissionConfiguration
    apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
    kind: WebhookAdmission
    kubeConfigFile: "<path-to-kubeconfig-file>"

For more information about AdmissionConfiguration, see the AdmissionConfiguration (v1) reference. See the webhook configuration section for details about each config field.

In the kubeConfig file, provide the credentials:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Config
users:
# name should be set to the DNS name of the service or the host (including port) of the URL the webhook is configured to speak to.
# If a non-443 port is used for services, it must be included in the name when configuring 1.16+ API servers.
#
# For a webhook configured to speak to a service on the default port (443), specify the DNS name of the service:
# - name: webhook1.ns1.svc
#   user: ...
#
# For a webhook configured to speak to a service on non-default port (e.g. 8443), specify the DNS name and port of the service in 1.16+:
# - name: webhook1.ns1.svc:8443
#   user: ...
# and optionally create a second stanza using only the DNS name of the service for compatibility with 1.15 API servers:
# - name: webhook1.ns1.svc
#   user: ...
#
# For webhooks configured to speak to a URL, match the host (and port) specified in the webhook's URL. Examples:
# A webhook with `url: https://www.example.com`:
# - name: www.example.com
#   user: ...
#
# A webhook with `url: https://www.example.com:443`:
# - name: www.example.com:443
#   user: ...
#
# A webhook with `url: https://www.example.com:8443`:
# - name: www.example.com:8443
#   user: ...
#
- name: 'webhook1.ns1.svc'
  user:
    client-certificate-data: "<pem encoded certificate>"
    client-key-data: "<pem encoded key>"
# The `name` supports using * to wildcard-match prefixing segments.
- name: '*.webhook-company.org'
  user:
    password: "<password>"
    username: "<name>"
# '*' is the default match.
- name: '*'
  user:
    token: "<token>"

Of course you need to set up the webhook server to handle these authentication requests.

Webhook request and response

Request

Webhooks are sent as POST requests, with Content-Type: application/json, with an AdmissionReview API object in the admission.k8s.io API group serialized to JSON as the body.

Webhooks can specify what versions of AdmissionReview objects they accept with the admissionReviewVersions field in their configuration:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  admissionReviewVersions: ["v1", "v1beta1"]

admissionReviewVersions is a required field when creating webhook configurations. Webhooks are required to support at least one AdmissionReview version understood by the current and previous API server.

API servers send the first AdmissionReview version in the admissionReviewVersions list they support. If none of the versions in the list are supported by the API server, the configuration will not be allowed to be created. If an API server encounters a webhook configuration that was previously created and does not support any of the AdmissionReview versions the API server knows how to send, attempts to call to the webhook will fail and be subject to the failure policy.

This example shows the data contained in an AdmissionReview object for a request to update the scale subresource of an apps/v1 Deployment:

apiVersion: admission.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionReview
request:
  # Random uid uniquely identifying this admission call
  uid: 705ab4f5-6393-11e8-b7cc-42010a800002

  # Fully-qualified group/version/kind of the incoming object
  kind:
    group: autoscaling
    version: v1
    kind: Scale

  # Fully-qualified group/version/kind of the resource being modified
  resource:
    group: apps
    version: v1
    resource: deployments

  # subresource, if the request is to a subresource
  subResource: scale

  # Fully-qualified group/version/kind of the incoming object in the original request to the API server.
  # This only differs from `kind` if the webhook specified `matchPolicy: Equivalent` and the
  # original request to the API server was converted to a version the webhook registered for.
  requestKind:
    group: autoscaling
    version: v1
    kind: Scale

  # Fully-qualified group/version/kind of the resource being modified in the original request to the API server.
  # This only differs from `resource` if the webhook specified `matchPolicy: Equivalent` and the
  # original request to the API server was converted to a version the webhook registered for.
  requestResource:
    group: apps
    version: v1
    resource: deployments

  # subresource, if the request is to a subresource
  # This only differs from `subResource` if the webhook specified `matchPolicy: Equivalent` and the
  # original request to the API server was converted to a version the webhook registered for.
  requestSubResource: scale

  # Name of the resource being modified
  name: my-deployment

  # Namespace of the resource being modified, if the resource is namespaced (or is a Namespace object)
  namespace: my-namespace

  # operation can be CREATE, UPDATE, DELETE, or CONNECT
  operation: UPDATE

  userInfo:
    # Username of the authenticated user making the request to the API server
    username: admin

    # UID of the authenticated user making the request to the API server
    uid: 014fbff9a07c

    # Group memberships of the authenticated user making the request to the API server
    groups:
      - system:authenticated
      - my-admin-group
    # Arbitrary extra info associated with the user making the request to the API server.
    # This is populated by the API server authentication layer and should be included
    # if any SubjectAccessReview checks are performed by the webhook.
    extra:
      some-key:
        - some-value1
        - some-value2

  # object is the new object being admitted.
  # It is null for DELETE operations.
  object:
    apiVersion: autoscaling/v1
    kind: Scale

  # oldObject is the existing object.
  # It is null for CREATE and CONNECT operations.
  oldObject:
    apiVersion: autoscaling/v1
    kind: Scale

  # options contains the options for the operation being admitted, like meta.k8s.io/v1 CreateOptions, UpdateOptions, or DeleteOptions.
  # It is null for CONNECT operations.
  options:
    apiVersion: meta.k8s.io/v1
    kind: UpdateOptions

  # dryRun indicates the API request is running in dry run mode and will not be persisted.
  # Webhooks with side effects should avoid actuating those side effects when dryRun is true.
  # See http://k8s.io/docs/reference/using-api/api-concepts/#make-a-dry-run-request for more details.
  dryRun: False

Response

Webhooks respond with a 200 HTTP status code, Content-Type: application/json, and a body containing an AdmissionReview object (in the same version they were sent), with the response stanza populated, serialized to JSON.

At a minimum, the response stanza must contain the following fields:

  • uid, copied from the request.uid sent to the webhook
  • allowed, either set to true or false

Example of a minimal response from a webhook to allow a request:

{
  "apiVersion": "admission.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "AdmissionReview",
  "response": {
    "uid": "<value from request.uid>",
    "allowed": true
  }
}

Example of a minimal response from a webhook to forbid a request:

{
  "apiVersion": "admission.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "AdmissionReview",
  "response": {
    "uid": "<value from request.uid>",
    "allowed": false
  }
}

When rejecting a request, the webhook can customize the http code and message returned to the user using the status field. The specified status object is returned to the user. See the API documentation for details about the status type. Example of a response to forbid a request, customizing the HTTP status code and message presented to the user:

{
  "apiVersion": "admission.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "AdmissionReview",
  "response": {
    "uid": "<value from request.uid>",
    "allowed": false,
    "status": {
      "code": 403,
      "message": "You cannot do this because it is Tuesday and your name starts with A"
    }
  }
}

When allowing a request, a mutating admission webhook may optionally modify the incoming object as well. This is done using the patch and patchType fields in the response. The only currently supported patchType is JSONPatch. See JSON patch documentation for more details. For patchType: JSONPatch, the patch field contains a base64-encoded array of JSON patch operations.

As an example, a single patch operation that would set spec.replicas would be [{"op": "add", "path": "/spec/replicas", "value": 3}]

Base64-encoded, this would be W3sib3AiOiAiYWRkIiwgInBhdGgiOiAiL3NwZWMvcmVwbGljYXMiLCAidmFsdWUiOiAzfV0=

So a webhook response to add that label would be:

{
  "apiVersion": "admission.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "AdmissionReview",
  "response": {
    "uid": "<value from request.uid>",
    "allowed": true,
    "patchType": "JSONPatch",
    "patch": "W3sib3AiOiAiYWRkIiwgInBhdGgiOiAiL3NwZWMvcmVwbGljYXMiLCAidmFsdWUiOiAzfV0="
  }
}

Admission webhooks can optionally return warning messages that are returned to the requesting client in HTTP Warning headers with a warning code of 299. Warnings can be sent with allowed or rejected admission responses.

If you're implementing a webhook that returns a warning:

  • Don't include a "Warning:" prefix in the message
  • Use warning messages to describe problems the client making the API request should correct or be aware of
  • Limit warnings to 120 characters if possible
{
  "apiVersion": "admission.k8s.io/v1",
  "kind": "AdmissionReview",
  "response": {
    "uid": "<value from request.uid>",
    "allowed": true,
    "warnings": [
      "duplicate envvar entries specified with name MY_ENV",
      "memory request less than 4MB specified for container mycontainer, which will not start successfully"
    ]
  }
}

Webhook configuration

To register admission webhooks, create MutatingWebhookConfiguration or ValidatingWebhookConfiguration API objects. The name of a MutatingWebhookConfiguration or a ValidatingWebhookConfiguration object must be a valid DNS subdomain name.

Each configuration can contain one or more webhooks. If multiple webhooks are specified in a single configuration, each must be given a unique name. This is required in order to make resulting audit logs and metrics easier to match up to active configurations.

Each webhook defines the following things.

Matching requests: rules

Each webhook must specify a list of rules used to determine if a request to the API server should be sent to the webhook. Each rule specifies one or more operations, apiGroups, apiVersions, and resources, and a resource scope:

  • operations lists one or more operations to match. Can be "CREATE", "UPDATE", "DELETE", "CONNECT", or "*" to match all.

  • apiGroups lists one or more API groups to match. "" is the core API group. "*" matches all API groups.

  • apiVersions lists one or more API versions to match. "*" matches all API versions.

  • resources lists one or more resources to match.

    • "*" matches all resources, but not subresources.
    • "*/*" matches all resources and subresources.
    • "pods/*" matches all subresources of pods.
    • "*/status" matches all status subresources.
  • scope specifies a scope to match. Valid values are "Cluster", "Namespaced", and "*". Subresources match the scope of their parent resource. Default is "*".

    • "Cluster" means that only cluster-scoped resources will match this rule (Namespace API objects are cluster-scoped).
    • "Namespaced" means that only namespaced resources will match this rule.
    • "*" means that there are no scope restrictions.

If an incoming request matches one of the specified operations, groups, versions, resources, and scope for any of a webhook's rules, the request is sent to the webhook.

Here are other examples of rules that could be used to specify which resources should be intercepted.

Match CREATE or UPDATE requests to apps/v1 and apps/v1beta1 deployments and replicasets:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
...
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  rules:
  - operations: ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
    apiGroups: ["apps"]
    apiVersions: ["v1", "v1beta1"]
    resources: ["deployments", "replicasets"]
    scope: "Namespaced"
  ...

Match create requests for all resources (but not subresources) in all API groups and versions:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    rules:
      - operations: ["CREATE"]
        apiGroups: ["*"]
        apiVersions: ["*"]
        resources: ["*"]
        scope: "*"

Match update requests for all status subresources in all API groups and versions:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    rules:
      - operations: ["UPDATE"]
        apiGroups: ["*"]
        apiVersions: ["*"]
        resources: ["*/status"]
        scope: "*"

Matching requests: objectSelector

Webhooks may optionally limit which requests are intercepted based on the labels of the objects they would be sent, by specifying an objectSelector. If specified, the objectSelector is evaluated against both the object and oldObject that would be sent to the webhook, and is considered to match if either object matches the selector.

A null object (oldObject in the case of create, or newObject in the case of delete), or an object that cannot have labels (like a DeploymentRollback or a PodProxyOptions object) is not considered to match.

Use the object selector only if the webhook is opt-in, because end users may skip the admission webhook by setting the labels.

This example shows a mutating webhook that would match a CREATE of any resource (but not subresources) with the label foo: bar:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  objectSelector:
    matchLabels:
      foo: bar
  rules:
  - operations: ["CREATE"]
    apiGroups: ["*"]
    apiVersions: ["*"]
    resources: ["*"]
    scope: "*"

See labels concept for more examples of label selectors.

Matching requests: namespaceSelector

Webhooks may optionally limit which requests for namespaced resources are intercepted, based on the labels of the containing namespace, by specifying a namespaceSelector.

The namespaceSelector decides whether to run the webhook on a request for a namespaced resource (or a Namespace object), based on whether the namespace's labels match the selector. If the object itself is a namespace, the matching is performed on object.metadata.labels. If the object is a cluster scoped resource other than a Namespace, namespaceSelector has no effect.

This example shows a mutating webhook that matches a CREATE of any namespaced resource inside a namespace that does not have a "runlevel" label of "0" or "1":

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    namespaceSelector:
      matchExpressions:
        - key: runlevel
          operator: NotIn
          values: ["0","1"]
    rules:
      - operations: ["CREATE"]
        apiGroups: ["*"]
        apiVersions: ["*"]
        resources: ["*"]
        scope: "Namespaced"

This example shows a validating webhook that matches a CREATE of any namespaced resource inside a namespace that is associated with the "environment" of "prod" or "staging":

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    namespaceSelector:
      matchExpressions:
        - key: environment
          operator: In
          values: ["prod","staging"]
    rules:
      - operations: ["CREATE"]
        apiGroups: ["*"]
        apiVersions: ["*"]
        resources: ["*"]
        scope: "Namespaced"

See labels concept for more examples of label selectors.

Matching requests: matchPolicy

API servers can make objects available via multiple API groups or versions.

For example, if a webhook only specified a rule for some API groups/versions (like apiGroups:["apps"], apiVersions:["v1","v1beta1"]), and a request was made to modify the resource via another API group/version (like extensions/v1beta1), the request would not be sent to the webhook.

The matchPolicy lets a webhook define how its rules are used to match incoming requests. Allowed values are Exact or Equivalent.

  • Exact means a request should be intercepted only if it exactly matches a specified rule.
  • Equivalent means a request should be intercepted if modifies a resource listed in rules, even via another API group or version.

In the example given above, the webhook that only registered for apps/v1 could use matchPolicy:

  • matchPolicy: Exact would mean the extensions/v1beta1 request would not be sent to the webhook
  • matchPolicy: Equivalent means the extensions/v1beta1 request would be sent to the webhook (with the objects converted to a version the webhook had specified: apps/v1)

Specifying Equivalent is recommended, and ensures that webhooks continue to intercept the resources they expect when upgrades enable new versions of the resource in the API server.

When a resource stops being served by the API server, it is no longer considered equivalent to other versions of that resource that are still served. For example, extensions/v1beta1 deployments were first deprecated and then removed (in Kubernetes v1.16).

Since that removal, a webhook with a apiGroups:["extensions"], apiVersions:["v1beta1"], resources:["deployments"] rule does not intercept deployments created via apps/v1 APIs. For that reason, webhooks should prefer registering for stable versions of resources.

This example shows a validating webhook that intercepts modifications to deployments (no matter the API group or version), and is always sent an apps/v1 Deployment object:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  matchPolicy: Equivalent
  rules:
  - operations: ["CREATE","UPDATE","DELETE"]
    apiGroups: ["apps"]
    apiVersions: ["v1"]
    resources: ["deployments"]
    scope: "Namespaced"

The matchPolicy for an admission webhooks defaults to Equivalent.

Matching requests: matchConditions

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.28 [beta]

You can define match conditions for webhooks if you need fine-grained request filtering. These conditions are useful if you find that match rules, objectSelectors and namespaceSelectors still doesn't provide the filtering you want over when to call out over HTTP. Match conditions are CEL expressions. All match conditions must evaluate to true for the webhook to be called.

Here is an example illustrating a few different uses for match conditions:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    matchPolicy: Equivalent
    rules:
      - operations: ['CREATE','UPDATE']
        apiGroups: ['*']
        apiVersions: ['*']
        resources: ['*']
    failurePolicy: 'Ignore' # Fail-open (optional)
    sideEffects: None
    clientConfig:
      service:
        namespace: my-namespace
        name: my-webhook
      caBundle: '<omitted>'
    # You can have up to 64 matchConditions per webhook
    matchConditions:
      - name: 'exclude-leases' # Each match condition must have a unique name
        expression: '!(request.resource.group == "coordination.k8s.io" && request.resource.resource == "leases")' # Match non-lease resources.
      - name: 'exclude-kubelet-requests'
        expression: '!("system:nodes" in request.userInfo.groups)' # Match requests made by non-node users.
      - name: 'rbac' # Skip RBAC requests, which are handled by the second webhook.
        expression: 'request.resource.group != "rbac.authorization.k8s.io"'
  
  # This example illustrates the use of the 'authorizer'. The authorization check is more expensive
  # than a simple expression, so in this example it is scoped to only RBAC requests by using a second
  # webhook. Both webhooks can be served by the same endpoint.
  - name: rbac.my-webhook.example.com
    matchPolicy: Equivalent
    rules:
      - operations: ['CREATE','UPDATE']
        apiGroups: ['rbac.authorization.k8s.io']
        apiVersions: ['*']
        resources: ['*']
    failurePolicy: 'Fail' # Fail-closed (the default)
    sideEffects: None
    clientConfig:
      service:
        namespace: my-namespace
        name: my-webhook
      caBundle: '<omitted>'
    # You can have up to 64 matchConditions per webhook
    matchConditions:
      - name: 'breakglass'
        # Skip requests made by users authorized to 'breakglass' on this webhook.
        # The 'breakglass' API verb does not need to exist outside this check.
        expression: '!authorizer.group("admissionregistration.k8s.io").resource("validatingwebhookconfigurations").name("my-webhook.example.com").check("breakglass").allowed()'

Match conditions have access to the following CEL variables:

  • object - The object from the incoming request. The value is null for DELETE requests. The object version may be converted based on the matchPolicy.
  • oldObject - The existing object. The value is null for CREATE requests.
  • request - The request portion of the AdmissionReview, excluding object and oldObject.
  • authorizer - A CEL Authorizer. May be used to perform authorization checks for the principal (authenticated user) of the request. See Authz in the Kubernetes CEL library documentation for more details.
  • authorizer.requestResource - A shortcut for an authorization check configured with the request resource (group, resource, (subresource), namespace, name).

For more information on CEL expressions, refer to the Common Expression Language in Kubernetes reference.

In the event of an error evaluating a match condition the webhook is never called. Whether to reject the request is determined as follows:

  1. If any match condition evaluated to false (regardless of other errors), the API server skips the webhook.
  2. Otherwise:

Contacting the webhook

Once the API server has determined a request should be sent to a webhook, it needs to know how to contact the webhook. This is specified in the clientConfig stanza of the webhook configuration.

Webhooks can either be called via a URL or a service reference, and can optionally include a custom CA bundle to use to verify the TLS connection.

URL

url gives the location of the webhook, in standard URL form (scheme://host:port/path).

The host should not refer to a service running in the cluster; use a service reference by specifying the service field instead. The host might be resolved via external DNS in some API servers (e.g., kube-apiserver cannot resolve in-cluster DNS as that would be a layering violation). host may also be an IP address.

Please note that using localhost or 127.0.0.1 as a host is risky unless you take great care to run this webhook on all hosts which run an API server which might need to make calls to this webhook. Such installations are likely to be non-portable or not readily run in a new cluster.

The scheme must be "https"; the URL must begin with "https://".

Attempting to use a user or basic auth (for example user:password@) is not allowed. Fragments (#...) and query parameters (?...) are also not allowed.

Here is an example of a mutating webhook configured to call a URL (and expects the TLS certificate to be verified using system trust roots, so does not specify a caBundle):

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  clientConfig:
    url: "https://my-webhook.example.com:9443/my-webhook-path"

Service reference

The service stanza inside clientConfig is a reference to the service for this webhook. If the webhook is running within the cluster, then you should use service instead of url. The service namespace and name are required. The port is optional and defaults to 443. The path is optional and defaults to "/".

Here is an example of a mutating webhook configured to call a service on port "1234" at the subpath "/my-path", and to verify the TLS connection against the ServerName my-service-name.my-service-namespace.svc using a custom CA bundle:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  clientConfig:
    caBundle: <CA_BUNDLE>
    service:
      namespace: my-service-namespace
      name: my-service-name
      path: /my-path
      port: 1234

Side effects

Webhooks typically operate only on the content of the AdmissionReview sent to them. Some webhooks, however, make out-of-band changes as part of processing admission requests.

Webhooks that make out-of-band changes ("side effects") must also have a reconciliation mechanism (like a controller) that periodically determines the actual state of the world, and adjusts the out-of-band data modified by the admission webhook to reflect reality. This is because a call to an admission webhook does not guarantee the admitted object will be persisted as is, or at all. Later webhooks can modify the content of the object, a conflict could be encountered while writing to storage, or the server could power off before persisting the object.

Additionally, webhooks with side effects must skip those side-effects when dryRun: true admission requests are handled. A webhook must explicitly indicate that it will not have side-effects when run with dryRun, or the dry-run request will not be sent to the webhook and the API request will fail instead.

Webhooks indicate whether they have side effects using the sideEffects field in the webhook configuration:

  • None: calling the webhook will have no side effects.
  • NoneOnDryRun: calling the webhook will possibly have side effects, but if a request with dryRun: true is sent to the webhook, the webhook will suppress the side effects (the webhook is dryRun-aware).

Here is an example of a validating webhook indicating it has no side effects on dryRun: true requests:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    sideEffects: NoneOnDryRun

Timeouts

Because webhooks add to API request latency, they should evaluate as quickly as possible. timeoutSeconds allows configuring how long the API server should wait for a webhook to respond before treating the call as a failure.

If the timeout expires before the webhook responds, the webhook call will be ignored or the API call will be rejected based on the failure policy.

The timeout value must be between 1 and 30 seconds.

Here is an example of a validating webhook with a custom timeout of 2 seconds:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
  - name: my-webhook.example.com
    timeoutSeconds: 2

The timeout for an admission webhook defaults to 10 seconds.

Reinvocation policy

A single ordering of mutating admissions plugins (including webhooks) does not work for all cases (see https://issue.k8s.io/64333 as an example). A mutating webhook can add a new sub-structure to the object (like adding a container to a pod), and other mutating plugins which have already run may have opinions on those new structures (like setting an imagePullPolicy on all containers).

To allow mutating admission plugins to observe changes made by other plugins, built-in mutating admission plugins are re-run if a mutating webhook modifies an object, and mutating webhooks can specify a reinvocationPolicy to control whether they are reinvoked as well.

reinvocationPolicy may be set to Never or IfNeeded. It defaults to Never.

  • Never: the webhook must not be called more than once in a single admission evaluation.
  • IfNeeded: the webhook may be called again as part of the admission evaluation if the object being admitted is modified by other admission plugins after the initial webhook call.

The important elements to note are:

  • The number of additional invocations is not guaranteed to be exactly one.
  • If additional invocations result in further modifications to the object, webhooks are not guaranteed to be invoked again.
  • Webhooks that use this option may be reordered to minimize the number of additional invocations.
  • To validate an object after all mutations are guaranteed complete, use a validating admission webhook instead (recommended for webhooks with side-effects).

Here is an example of a mutating webhook opting into being re-invoked if later admission plugins modify the object:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  reinvocationPolicy: IfNeeded

Mutating webhooks must be idempotent, able to successfully process an object they have already admitted and potentially modified. This is true for all mutating admission webhooks, since any change they can make in an object could already exist in the user-provided object, but it is essential for webhooks that opt into reinvocation.

Failure policy

failurePolicy defines how unrecognized errors and timeout errors from the admission webhook are handled. Allowed values are Ignore or Fail.

  • Ignore means that an error calling the webhook is ignored and the API request is allowed to continue.
  • Fail means that an error calling the webhook causes the admission to fail and the API request to be rejected.

Here is a mutating webhook configured to reject an API request if errors are encountered calling the admission webhook:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
  failurePolicy: Fail

The default failurePolicy for an admission webhooks is Fail.

Monitoring admission webhooks

The API server provides ways to monitor admission webhook behaviors. These monitoring mechanisms help cluster admins to answer questions like:

  1. Which mutating webhook mutated the object in a API request?

  2. What change did the mutating webhook applied to the object?

  3. Which webhooks are frequently rejecting API requests? What's the reason for a rejection?

Mutating webhook auditing annotations

Sometimes it's useful to know which mutating webhook mutated the object in a API request, and what change did the webhook apply.

The Kubernetes API server performs auditing on each mutating webhook invocation. Each invocation generates an auditing annotation capturing if a request object is mutated by the invocation, and optionally generates an annotation capturing the applied patch from the webhook admission response. The annotations are set in the audit event for given request on given stage of its execution, which is then pre-processed according to a certain policy and written to a backend.

The audit level of a event determines which annotations get recorded:

  • At Metadata audit level or higher, an annotation with key mutation.webhook.admission.k8s.io/round_{round idx}_index_{order idx} gets logged with JSON payload indicating a webhook gets invoked for given request and whether it mutated the object or not.

    For example, the following annotation gets recorded for a webhook being reinvoked. The webhook is ordered the third in the mutating webhook chain, and didn't mutated the request object during the invocation.

    # the audit event recorded
    {
        "kind": "Event",
        "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1",
        "annotations": {
            "mutation.webhook.admission.k8s.io/round_1_index_2": "{\"configuration\":\"my-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com\",\"webhook\":\"my-webhook.example.com\",\"mutated\": false}"
            # other annotations
            ...
        }
        # other fields
        ...
    }
    
    # the annotation value deserialized
    {
        "configuration": "my-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com",
        "webhook": "my-webhook.example.com",
        "mutated": false
    }
    

    The following annotation gets recorded for a webhook being invoked in the first round. The webhook is ordered the first in the mutating webhook chain, and mutated the request object during the invocation.

    # the audit event recorded
    {
        "kind": "Event",
        "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1",
        "annotations": {
            "mutation.webhook.admission.k8s.io/round_0_index_0": "{\"configuration\":\"my-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com\",\"webhook\":\"my-webhook-always-mutate.example.com\",\"mutated\": true}"
            # other annotations
            ...
        }
        # other fields
        ...
    }
    
    # the annotation value deserialized
    {
        "configuration": "my-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com",
        "webhook": "my-webhook-always-mutate.example.com",
        "mutated": true
    }
    
  • At Request audit level or higher, an annotation with key patch.webhook.admission.k8s.io/round_{round idx}_index_{order idx} gets logged with JSON payload indicating a webhook gets invoked for given request and what patch gets applied to the request object.

    For example, the following annotation gets recorded for a webhook being reinvoked. The webhook is ordered the fourth in the mutating webhook chain, and responded with a JSON patch which got applied to the request object.

    # the audit event recorded
    {
        "kind": "Event",
        "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1",
        "annotations": {
            "patch.webhook.admission.k8s.io/round_1_index_3": "{\"configuration\":\"my-other-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com\",\"webhook\":\"my-webhook-always-mutate.example.com\",\"patch\":[{\"op\":\"add\",\"path\":\"/data/mutation-stage\",\"value\":\"yes\"}],\"patchType\":\"JSONPatch\"}"
            # other annotations
            ...
        }
        # other fields
        ...
    }
    
    # the annotation value deserialized
    {
        "configuration": "my-other-mutating-webhook-configuration.example.com",
        "webhook": "my-webhook-always-mutate.example.com",
        "patchType": "JSONPatch",
        "patch": [
            {
                "op": "add",
                "path": "/data/mutation-stage",
                "value": "yes"
            }
        ]
    }
    

Admission webhook metrics

The API server exposes Prometheus metrics from the /metrics endpoint, which can be used for monitoring and diagnosing API server status. The following metrics record status related to admission webhooks.

API server admission webhook rejection count

Sometimes it's useful to know which admission webhooks are frequently rejecting API requests, and the reason for a rejection.

The API server exposes a Prometheus counter metric recording admission webhook rejections. The metrics are labelled to identify the causes of webhook rejection(s):

  • name: the name of the webhook that rejected a request.

  • operation: the operation type of the request, can be one of CREATE, UPDATE, DELETE and CONNECT.

  • type: the admission webhook type, can be one of admit and validating.

  • error_type: identifies if an error occurred during the webhook invocation that caused the rejection. Its value can be one of:

    • calling_webhook_error: unrecognized errors or timeout errors from the admission webhook happened and the webhook's Failure policy is set to Fail.
    • no_error: no error occurred. The webhook rejected the request with allowed: false in the admission response. The metrics label rejection_code records the .status.code set in the admission response.
    • apiserver_internal_error: an API server internal error happened.
  • rejection_code: the HTTP status code set in the admission response when a webhook rejected a request.

Example of the rejection count metrics:

# HELP apiserver_admission_webhook_rejection_count [ALPHA] Admission webhook rejection count, identified by name and broken out for each admission type (validating or admit) and operation. Additional labels specify an error type (calling_webhook_error or apiserver_internal_error if an error occurred; no_error otherwise) and optionally a non-zero rejection code if the webhook rejects the request with an HTTP status code (honored by the apiserver when the code is greater or equal to 400). Codes greater than 600 are truncated to 600, to keep the metrics cardinality bounded.
# TYPE apiserver_admission_webhook_rejection_count counter
apiserver_admission_webhook_rejection_count{error_type="calling_webhook_error",name="always-timeout-webhook.example.com",operation="CREATE",rejection_code="0",type="validating"} 1
apiserver_admission_webhook_rejection_count{error_type="calling_webhook_error",name="invalid-admission-response-webhook.example.com",operation="CREATE",rejection_code="0",type="validating"} 1
apiserver_admission_webhook_rejection_count{error_type="no_error",name="deny-unwanted-configmap-data.example.com",operation="CREATE",rejection_code="400",type="validating"} 13

Best practices and warnings

Idempotence

An idempotent mutating admission webhook is able to successfully process an object it has already admitted and potentially modified. The admission can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application.

Example of idempotent mutating admission webhooks:

  1. For a CREATE pod request, set the field .spec.securityContext.runAsNonRoot of the pod to true, to enforce security best practices.

  2. For a CREATE pod request, if the field .spec.containers[].resources.limits of a container is not set, set default resource limits.

  3. For a CREATE pod request, inject a sidecar container with name foo-sidecar if no container with the name foo-sidecar already exists.

In the cases above, the webhook can be safely reinvoked, or admit an object that already has the fields set.

Example of non-idempotent mutating admission webhooks:

  1. For a CREATE pod request, inject a sidecar container with name foo-sidecar suffixed with the current timestamp (e.g. foo-sidecar-19700101-000000).

  2. For a CREATE/UPDATE pod request, reject if the pod has label "env" set, otherwise add an "env": "prod" label to the pod.

  3. For a CREATE pod request, blindly append a sidecar container named foo-sidecar without looking to see if there is already a foo-sidecar container in the pod.

In the first case above, reinvoking the webhook can result in the same sidecar being injected multiple times to a pod, each time with a different container name. Similarly the webhook can inject duplicated containers if the sidecar already exists in a user-provided pod.

In the second case above, reinvoking the webhook will result in the webhook failing on its own output.

In the third case above, reinvoking the webhook will result in duplicated containers in the pod spec, which makes the request invalid and rejected by the API server.

Intercepting all versions of an object

It is recommended that admission webhooks should always intercept all versions of an object by setting .webhooks[].matchPolicy to Equivalent. It is also recommended that admission webhooks should prefer registering for stable versions of resources. Failure to intercept all versions of an object can result in admission policies not being enforced for requests in certain versions. See Matching requests: matchPolicy for examples.

Availability

It is recommended that admission webhooks should evaluate as quickly as possible (typically in milliseconds), since they add to API request latency. It is encouraged to use a small timeout for webhooks. See Timeouts for more detail.

It is recommended that admission webhooks should leverage some format of load-balancing, to provide high availability and performance benefits. If a webhook is running within the cluster, you can run multiple webhook backends behind a service to leverage the load-balancing that service supports.

Guaranteeing the final state of the object is seen

Admission webhooks that need to guarantee they see the final state of the object in order to enforce policy should use a validating admission webhook, since objects can be modified after being seen by mutating webhooks.

For example, a mutating admission webhook is configured to inject a sidecar container with name "foo-sidecar" on every CREATE pod request. If the sidecar must be present, a validating admisson webhook should also be configured to intercept CREATE pod requests, and validate that a container with name "foo-sidecar" with the expected configuration exists in the to-be-created object.

Avoiding deadlocks in self-hosted webhooks

A webhook running inside the cluster might cause deadlocks for its own deployment if it is configured to intercept resources required to start its own pods.

For example, a mutating admission webhook is configured to admit CREATE pod requests only if a certain label is set in the pod (e.g. "env": "prod"). The webhook server runs in a deployment which doesn't set the "env" label. When a node that runs the webhook server pods becomes unhealthy, the webhook deployment will try to reschedule the pods to another node. However the requests will get rejected by the existing webhook server since the "env" label is unset, and the migration cannot happen.

It is recommended to exclude the namespace where your webhook is running with a namespaceSelector.

Side effects

It is recommended that admission webhooks should avoid side effects if possible, which means the webhooks operate only on the content of the AdmissionReview sent to them, and do not make out-of-band changes. The .webhooks[].sideEffects field should be set to None if a webhook doesn't have any side effect.

If side effects are required during the admission evaluation, they must be suppressed when processing an AdmissionReview object with dryRun set to true, and the .webhooks[].sideEffects field should be set to NoneOnDryRun. See Side effects for more detail.

Avoiding operating on the kube-system namespace

The kube-system namespace contains objects created by the Kubernetes system, e.g. service accounts for the control plane components, pods like kube-dns. Accidentally mutating or rejecting requests in the kube-system namespace may cause the control plane components to stop functioning or introduce unknown behavior. If your admission webhooks don't intend to modify the behavior of the Kubernetes control plane, exclude the kube-system namespace from being intercepted using a namespaceSelector.

6 - Managing Service Accounts

A ServiceAccount provides an identity for processes that run in a Pod.

A process inside a Pod can use the identity of its associated service account to authenticate to the cluster's API server.

For an introduction to service accounts, read configure service accounts.

This task guide explains some of the concepts behind ServiceAccounts. The guide also explains how to obtain or revoke tokens that represent ServiceAccounts.

Before you begin

You need to have a Kubernetes cluster, and the kubectl command-line tool must be configured to communicate with your cluster. It is recommended to run this tutorial on a cluster with at least two nodes that are not acting as control plane hosts. If you do not already have a cluster, you can create one by using minikube or you can use one of these Kubernetes playgrounds:

To be able to follow these steps exactly, ensure you have a namespace named examplens. If you don't, create one by running:

kubectl create namespace examplens

User accounts versus service accounts

Kubernetes distinguishes between the concept of a user account and a service account for a number of reasons:

  • User accounts are for humans. Service accounts are for application processes, which (for Kubernetes) run in containers that are part of pods.
  • User accounts are intended to be global: names must be unique across all namespaces of a cluster. No matter what namespace you look at, a particular username that represents a user represents the same user. In Kubernetes, service accounts are namespaced: two different namespaces can contain ServiceAccounts that have identical names.
  • Typically, a cluster's user accounts might be synchronised from a corporate database, where new user account creation requires special privileges and is tied to complex business processes. By contrast, service account creation is intended to be more lightweight, allowing cluster users to create service accounts for specific tasks on demand. Separating ServiceAccount creation from the steps to onboard human users makes it easier for workloads to follow the principle of least privilege.
  • Auditing considerations for humans and service accounts may differ; the separation makes that easier to achieve.
  • A configuration bundle for a complex system may include definition of various service accounts for components of that system. Because service accounts can be created without many constraints and have namespaced names, such configuration is usually portable.

Bound service account token volume mechanism

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.22 [stable]

By default, the Kubernetes control plane (specifically, the ServiceAccount admission controller) adds a projected volume to Pods, and this volume includes a token for Kubernetes API access.

Here's an example of how that looks for a launched Pod:

...
  - name: kube-api-access-<random-suffix>
    projected:
      sources:
        - serviceAccountToken:
            path: token # must match the path the app expects
        - configMap:
            items:
              - key: ca.crt
                path: ca.crt
            name: kube-root-ca.crt
        - downwardAPI:
            items:
              - fieldRef:
                  apiVersion: v1
                  fieldPath: metadata.namespace
                path: namespace

That manifest snippet defines a projected volume that consists of three sources. In this case, each source also represents a single path within that volume. The three sources are:

  1. A serviceAccountToken source, that contains a token that the kubelet acquires from kube-apiserver. The kubelet fetches time-bound tokens using the TokenRequest API. A token served for a TokenRequest expires either when the pod is deleted or after a defined lifespan (by default, that is 1 hour). The kubelet also refreshes that token before the token expires. The token is bound to the specific Pod and has the kube-apiserver as its audience. This mechanism superseded an earlier mechanism that added a volume based on a Secret, where the Secret represented the ServiceAccount for the Pod, but did not expire.
  2. A configMap source. The ConfigMap contains a bundle of certificate authority data. Pods can use these certificates to make sure that they are connecting to your cluster's kube-apiserver (and not to middlebox or an accidentally misconfigured peer).
  3. A downwardAPI source that looks up the name of the namespace containing the Pod, and makes that name information available to application code running inside the Pod.

Any container within the Pod that mounts this particular volume can access the above information.

Manual Secret management for ServiceAccounts

Versions of Kubernetes before v1.22 automatically created credentials for accessing the Kubernetes API. This older mechanism was based on creating token Secrets that could then be mounted into running Pods.

In more recent versions, including Kubernetes v1.29, API credentials are obtained directly using the TokenRequest API, and are mounted into Pods using a projected volume. The tokens obtained using this method have bounded lifetimes, and are automatically invalidated when the Pod they are mounted into is deleted.

You can still manually create a Secret to hold a service account token; for example, if you need a token that never expires.

Once you manually create a Secret and link it to a ServiceAccount, the Kubernetes control plane automatically populates the token into that Secret.

Auto-generated legacy ServiceAccount token clean up

Before version 1.24, Kubernetes automatically generated Secret-based tokens for ServiceAccounts. To distinguish between automatically generated tokens and manually created ones, Kubernetes checks for a reference from the ServiceAccount's secrets field. If the Secret is referenced in the secrets field, it is considered an auto-generated legacy token. Otherwise, it is considered a manually created legacy token. For example:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ServiceAccount
metadata:
  name: build-robot
  namespace: default
secrets:
  - name: build-robot-secret # usually NOT present for a manually generated token                         

Beginning from version 1.29, legacy ServiceAccount tokens that were generated automatically will be marked as invalid if they remain unused for a certain period of time (set to default at one year). Tokens that continue to be unused for this defined period (again, by default, one year) will subsequently be purged by the control plane.

If users use an invalidated auto-generated token, the token validator will

  1. add an audit annotation for the key-value pair authentication.k8s.io/legacy-token-invalidated: <secret name>/<namespace>,
  2. increment the invalid_legacy_auto_token_uses_total metric count,
  3. update the Secret label kubernetes.io/legacy-token-last-used with the new date,
  4. return an error indicating that the token has been invalidated.

When receiving this validation error, users can update the Secret to remove the kubernetes.io/legacy-token-invalid-since label to temporarily allow use of this token.

Here's an example of an auto-generated legacy token that has been marked with the kubernetes.io/legacy-token-last-used and kubernetes.io/legacy-token-invalid-since labels:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
  name: build-robot-secret
  namespace: default
  labels:
    kubernetes.io/legacy-token-last-used: 2022-10-24
    kubernetes.io/legacy-token-invalid-since: 2023-10-25
  annotations:
    kubernetes.io/service-account.name: build-robot
type: kubernetes.io/service-account-token

Control plane details

ServiceAccount controller

A ServiceAccount controller manages the ServiceAccounts inside namespaces, and ensures a ServiceAccount named "default" exists in every active namespace.

Token controller

The service account token controller runs as part of kube-controller-manager. This controller acts asynchronously. It:

  • watches for ServiceAccount deletion and deletes all corresponding ServiceAccount token Secrets.
  • watches for ServiceAccount token Secret addition, and ensures the referenced ServiceAccount exists, and adds a token to the Secret if needed.
  • watches for Secret deletion and removes a reference from the corresponding ServiceAccount if needed.

You must pass a service account private key file to the token controller in the kube-controller-manager using the --service-account-private-key-file flag. The private key is used to sign generated service account tokens. Similarly, you must pass the corresponding public key to the kube-apiserver using the --service-account-key-file flag. The public key will be used to verify the tokens during authentication.

ServiceAccount admission controller

The modification of pods is implemented via a plugin called an Admission Controller. It is part of the API server. This admission controller acts synchronously to modify pods as they are created. When this plugin is active (and it is by default on most distributions), then it does the following when a Pod is created:

  1. If the pod does not have a .spec.serviceAccountName set, the admission controller sets the name of the ServiceAccount for this incoming Pod to default.
  2. The admission controller ensures that the ServiceAccount referenced by the incoming Pod exists. If there is no ServiceAccount with a matching name, the admission controller rejects the incoming Pod. That check applies even for the default ServiceAccount.
  3. Provided that neither the ServiceAccount's automountServiceAccountToken field nor the Pod's automountServiceAccountToken field is set to false:
    • the admission controller mutates the incoming Pod, adding an extra volume that contains a token for API access.
    • the admission controller adds a volumeMount to each container in the Pod, skipping any containers that already have a volume mount defined for the path /var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount. For Linux containers, that volume is mounted at /var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount; on Windows nodes, the mount is at the equivalent path.
  4. If the spec of the incoming Pod doesn't already contain any imagePullSecrets, then the admission controller adds imagePullSecrets, copying them from the ServiceAccount.

Legacy ServiceAccount token tracking controller

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.28 [stable]

This controller generates a ConfigMap called kube-system/kube-apiserver-legacy-service-account-token-tracking in the kube-system namespace. The ConfigMap records the timestamp when legacy service account tokens began to be monitored by the system.

Legacy ServiceAccount token cleaner

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.29 [beta]

The legacy ServiceAccount token cleaner runs as part of the kube-controller-manager and checks every 24 hours to see if any auto-generated legacy ServiceAccount token has not been used in a specified amount of time. If so, the cleaner marks those tokens as invalid.

The cleaner works by first checking the ConfigMap created by the control plane (provided that LegacyServiceAccountTokenTracking is enabled). If the current time is a specified amount of time after the date in the ConfigMap, the cleaner then loops through the list of Secrets in the cluster and evaluates each Secret that has the type kubernetes.io/service-account-token.

If a Secret meets all of the following conditions, the cleaner marks it as invalid:

  • The Secret is auto-generated, meaning that it is bi-directionally referenced by a ServiceAccount.
  • The Secret is not currently mounted by any pods.
  • The Secret has not been used in a specified amount of time since it was created or since it was last used.

The cleaner marks a Secret invalid by adding a label called kubernetes.io/legacy-token-invalid-since to the Secret, with the current date as the value. If an invalid Secret is not used in a specified amount of time, the cleaner will delete it.

TokenRequest API

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.22 [stable]

You use the TokenRequest subresource of a ServiceAccount to obtain a time-bound token for that ServiceAccount. You don't need to call this to obtain an API token for use within a container, since the kubelet sets this up for you using a projected volume.

If you want to use the TokenRequest API from kubectl, see Manually create an API token for a ServiceAccount.

The Kubernetes control plane (specifically, the ServiceAccount admission controller) adds a projected volume to Pods, and the kubelet ensures that this volume contains a token that lets containers authenticate as the right ServiceAccount.

(This mechanism superseded an earlier mechanism that added a volume based on a Secret, where the Secret represented the ServiceAccount for the Pod but did not expire.)

Here's an example of how that looks for a launched Pod:

...
  - name: kube-api-access-<random-suffix>
    projected:
      defaultMode: 420 # decimal equivalent of octal 0644
      sources:
        - serviceAccountToken:
            expirationSeconds: 3607
            path: token
        - configMap:
            items:
              - key: ca.crt
                path: ca.crt
            name: kube-root-ca.crt
        - downwardAPI:
            items:
              - fieldRef:
                  apiVersion: v1
                  fieldPath: metadata.namespace
                path: namespace

That manifest snippet defines a projected volume that combines information from three sources:

  1. A serviceAccountToken source, that contains a token that the kubelet acquires from kube-apiserver. The kubelet fetches time-bound tokens using the TokenRequest API. A token served for a TokenRequest expires either when the pod is deleted or after a defined lifespan (by default, that is 1 hour). The token is bound to the specific Pod and has the kube-apiserver as its audience.
  2. A configMap source. The ConfigMap contains a bundle of certificate authority data. Pods can use these certificates to make sure that they are connecting to your cluster's kube-apiserver (and not to middlebox or an accidentally misconfigured peer).
  3. A downwardAPI source. This downwardAPI volume makes the name of the namespace containing the Pod available to application code running inside the Pod.

Any container within the Pod that mounts this volume can access the above information.

Create additional API tokens

To create a non-expiring, persisted API token for a ServiceAccount, create a Secret of type kubernetes.io/service-account-token with an annotation referencing the ServiceAccount. The control plane then generates a long-lived token and updates that Secret with that generated token data.

Here is a sample manifest for such a Secret:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
type: kubernetes.io/service-account-token
metadata:
  name: mysecretname
  annotations:
    kubernetes.io/service-account.name: myserviceaccount

To create a Secret based on this example, run:

kubectl -n examplens create -f https://k8s.io/examples/secret/serviceaccount/mysecretname.yaml

To see the details for that Secret, run:

kubectl -n examplens describe secret mysecretname

The output is similar to:

Name:           mysecretname
Namespace:      examplens
Labels:         <none>
Annotations:    kubernetes.io/service-account.name=myserviceaccount
                kubernetes.io/service-account.uid=8a85c4c4-8483-11e9-bc42-526af7764f64

Type:   kubernetes.io/service-account-token

Data
====
ca.crt:         1362 bytes
namespace:      9 bytes
token:          ...

If you launch a new Pod into the examplens namespace, it can use the myserviceaccount service-account-token Secret that you just created.

Delete/invalidate a ServiceAccount token

If you know the name of the Secret that contains the token you want to remove:

kubectl delete secret name-of-secret

Otherwise, first find the Secret for the ServiceAccount.

# This assumes that you already have a namespace named 'examplens'
kubectl -n examplens get serviceaccount/example-automated-thing -o yaml

The output is similar to:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ServiceAccount
metadata:
  annotations:
    kubectl.kubernetes.io/last-applied-configuration: |
      {"apiVersion":"v1","kind":"ServiceAccount","metadata":{"annotations":{},"name":"example-automated-thing","namespace":"examplens"}}      
  creationTimestamp: "2019-07-21T07:07:07Z"
  name: example-automated-thing
  namespace: examplens
  resourceVersion: "777"
  selfLink: /api/v1/namespaces/examplens/serviceaccounts/example-automated-thing
  uid: f23fd170-66f2-4697-b049-e1e266b7f835
secrets:
  - name: example-automated-thing-token-zyxwv

Then, delete the Secret you now know the name of:

kubectl -n examplens delete secret/example-automated-thing-token-zyxwv

Clean up

If you created a namespace examplens to experiment with, you can remove it:

kubectl delete namespace examplens

What's next

7 - Authorization Overview

Learn more about Kubernetes authorization, including details about creating policies using the supported authorization modules.

In Kubernetes, you must be authenticated (logged in) before your request can be authorized (granted permission to access). For information about authentication, see Controlling Access to the Kubernetes API.

Kubernetes expects attributes that are common to REST API requests. This means that Kubernetes authorization works with existing organization-wide or cloud-provider-wide access control systems which may handle other APIs besides the Kubernetes API.

Determine Whether a Request is Allowed or Denied

Kubernetes authorizes API requests using the API server. It evaluates all of the request attributes against all policies and allows or denies the request. All parts of an API request must be allowed by some policy in order to proceed. This means that permissions are denied by default.

(Although Kubernetes uses the API server, access controls and policies that depend on specific fields of specific kinds of objects are handled by Admission Controllers.)

When multiple authorization modules are configured, each is checked in sequence. If any authorizer approves or denies a request, that decision is immediately returned and no other authorizer is consulted. If all modules have no opinion on the request, then the request is denied. A deny returns an HTTP status code 403.

Review Your Request Attributes

Kubernetes reviews only the following API request attributes:

  • user - The user string provided during authentication.
  • group - The list of group names to which the authenticated user belongs.
  • extra - A map of arbitrary string keys to string values, provided by the authentication layer.
  • API - Indicates whether the request is for an API resource.
  • Request path - Path to miscellaneous non-resource endpoints like /api or /healthz.
  • API request verb - API verbs like get, list, create, update, patch, watch, delete, and deletecollection are used for resource requests. To determine the request verb for a resource API endpoint, see Determine the request verb.
  • HTTP request verb - Lowercased HTTP methods like get, post, put, and delete are used for non-resource requests.
  • Resource - The ID or name of the resource that is being accessed (for resource requests only) -- For resource requests using get, update, patch, and delete verbs, you must provide the resource name.
  • Subresource - The subresource that is being accessed (for resource requests only).
  • Namespace - The namespace of the object that is being accessed (for namespaced resource requests only).
  • API group - The API Group being accessed (for resource requests only). An empty string designates the core API group.

Determine the Request Verb

Non-resource requests Requests to endpoints other than /api/v1/... or /apis/<group>/<version>/... are considered "non-resource requests", and use the lower-cased HTTP method of the request as the verb. For example, a GET request to endpoints like /api or /healthz would use get as the verb.

Resource requests To determine the request verb for a resource API endpoint, review the HTTP verb used and whether or not the request acts on an individual resource or a collection of resources:

HTTP verbrequest verb
POSTcreate
GET, HEADget (for individual resources), list (for collections, including full object content), watch (for watching an individual resource or collection of resources)
PUTupdate
PATCHpatch
DELETEdelete (for individual resources), deletecollection (for collections)

Kubernetes sometimes checks authorization for additional permissions using specialized verbs. For example:

  • RBAC
    • bind and escalate verbs on roles and clusterroles resources in the rbac.authorization.k8s.io API group.
  • Authentication
    • impersonate verb on users, groups, and serviceaccounts in the core API group, and the userextras in the authentication.k8s.io API group.

Authorization Modes

The Kubernetes API server may authorize a request using one of several authorization modes:

  • Node - A special-purpose authorization mode that grants permissions to kubelets based on the pods they are scheduled to run. To learn more about using the Node authorization mode, see Node Authorization.
  • ABAC - Attribute-based access control (ABAC) defines an access control paradigm whereby access rights are granted to users through the use of policies which combine attributes together. The policies can use any type of attributes (user attributes, resource attributes, object, environment attributes, etc). To learn more about using the ABAC mode, see ABAC Mode.
  • RBAC - Role-based access control (RBAC) is a method of regulating access to computer or network resources based on the roles of individual users within an enterprise. In this context, access is the ability of an individual user to perform a specific task, such as view, create, or modify a file. To learn more about using the RBAC mode, see RBAC Mode
    • When specified RBAC (Role-Based Access Control) uses the rbac.authorization.k8s.io API group to drive authorization decisions, allowing admins to dynamically configure permission policies through the Kubernetes API.
    • To enable RBAC, start the apiserver with --authorization-mode=RBAC.
  • Webhook - A WebHook is an HTTP callback: an HTTP POST that occurs when something happens; a simple event-notification via HTTP POST. A web application implementing WebHooks will POST a message to a URL when certain things happen. To learn more about using the Webhook mode, see Webhook Mode.

Checking API Access

kubectl provides the auth can-i subcommand for quickly querying the API authorization layer. The command uses the SelfSubjectAccessReview API to determine if the current user can perform a given action, and works regardless of the authorization mode used.

kubectl auth can-i create deployments --namespace dev

The output is similar to this:

yes
kubectl auth can-i create deployments --namespace prod

The output is similar to this:

no

Administrators can combine this with user impersonation to determine what action other users can perform.

kubectl auth can-i list secrets --namespace dev --as dave

The output is similar to this:

no

Similarly, to check whether a ServiceAccount named dev-sa in Namespace dev can list Pods in the Namespace target:

kubectl auth can-i list pods \
	--namespace target \
	--as system:serviceaccount:dev:dev-sa

The output is similar to this:

yes

SelfSubjectAccessReview is part of the authorization.k8s.io API group, which exposes the API server authorization to external services. Other resources in this group include:

  • SubjectAccessReview - Access review for any user, not only the current one. Useful for delegating authorization decisions to the API server. For example, the kubelet and extension API servers use this to determine user access to their own APIs.
  • LocalSubjectAccessReview - Like SubjectAccessReview but restricted to a specific namespace.
  • SelfSubjectRulesReview - A review which returns the set of actions a user can perform within a namespace. Useful for users to quickly summarize their own access, or for UIs to hide/show actions.

These APIs can be queried by creating normal Kubernetes resources, where the response "status" field of the returned object is the result of the query.

kubectl create -f - -o yaml << EOF
apiVersion: authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: SelfSubjectAccessReview
spec:
  resourceAttributes:
    group: apps
    resource: deployments
    verb: create
    namespace: dev
EOF

The generated SelfSubjectAccessReview is:

apiVersion: authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: SelfSubjectAccessReview
metadata:
  creationTimestamp: null
spec:
  resourceAttributes:
    group: apps
    resource: deployments
    namespace: dev
    verb: create
status:
  allowed: true
  denied: false

Using Flags for Your Authorization Module

You must include a flag in your policy to indicate which authorization module your policies include:

The following flags can be used:

  • --authorization-mode=ABAC Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) mode allows you to configure policies using local files.
  • --authorization-mode=RBAC Role-based access control (RBAC) mode allows you to create and store policies using the Kubernetes API.
  • --authorization-mode=Webhook WebHook is an HTTP callback mode that allows you to manage authorization using a remote REST endpoint.
  • --authorization-mode=Node Node authorization is a special-purpose authorization mode that specifically authorizes API requests made by kubelets.
  • --authorization-mode=AlwaysDeny This flag blocks all requests. Use this flag only for testing.
  • --authorization-mode=AlwaysAllow This flag allows all requests. Use this flag only if you do not require authorization for your API requests.

You can choose more than one authorization module. Modules are checked in order so an earlier module has higher priority to allow or deny a request.

Configuring the API Server using an Authorization Config File

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.29 [alpha]

The Kubernetes API server's authorizer chain can be configured using a configuration file.

You specify the path to that authorization configuration using the --authorization-config command line argument. This feature enables creation of authorization chains with multiple webhooks with well-defined parameters that validate requests in a certain order and enables fine grained control - such as explicit Deny on failures. An example configuration with all possible values is provided below.

In order to customise the authorizer chain, you need to enable the StructuredAuthorizationConfiguration feature gate.

Note: When the feature is enabled, setting both --authorization-config and configuring an authorization webhook using the --authorization-mode and --authorization-webhook-* command line flags is not allowed. If done, there will be an error and API Server would exit right away.

#
# DO NOT USE THE CONFIG AS IS. THIS IS AN EXAMPLE.
#
apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: AuthorizationConfiguration
# authorizers are defined in order of precedence
authorizers:
  - type: Webhook
    # Name used to describe the authorizer
    # This is explicitly used in monitoring machinery for metrics
    # Note:
    #   - Validation for this field is similar to how K8s labels are validated today.
    # Required, with no default
    name: webhook
    webhook:
      # The duration to cache 'authorized' responses from the webhook
      # authorizer.
      # Same as setting `--authorization-webhook-cache-authorized-ttl` flag
      # Default: 5m0s
      authorizedTTL: 30s
      # The duration to cache 'unauthorized' responses from the webhook
      # authorizer.
      # Same as setting `--authorization-webhook-cache-unauthorized-ttl` flag
      # Default: 30s
      unauthorizedTTL: 30s
      # Timeout for the webhook request
      # Maximum allowed is 30s.
      # Required, with no default.
      timeout: 3s
      # The API version of the authorization.k8s.io SubjectAccessReview to
      # send to and expect from the webhook.
      # Same as setting `--authorization-webhook-version` flag
      # Required, with no default
      # Valid values: v1beta1, v1
      subjectAccessReviewVersion: v1
      # MatchConditionSubjectAccessReviewVersion specifies the SubjectAccessReview
      # version the CEL expressions are evaluated against
      # Valid values: v1
      # Required only if matchConditions are specified, no default value
      matchConditionSubjectAccessReviewVersion: v1
      # Controls the authorization decision when a webhook request fails to
      # complete or returns a malformed response or errors evaluating
      # matchConditions.
      # Valid values:
      #   - NoOpinion: continue to subsequent authorizers to see if one of
      #     them allows the request
      #   - Deny: reject the request without consulting subsequent authorizers
      # Required, with no default.
      failurePolicy: Deny
      connectionInfo:
        # Controls how the webhook should communicate with the server.
        # Valid values:
        # - KubeConfig: use the file specified in kubeConfigFile to locate the
        #   server.
        # - InClusterConfig: use the in-cluster configuration to call the
        #   SubjectAccessReview API hosted by kube-apiserver. This mode is not
        #   allowed for kube-apiserver.
        type: KubeConfig
        # Path to KubeConfigFile for connection info
        # Required, if connectionInfo.Type is KubeConfig
        kubeConfigFile: /kube-system-authz-webhook.yaml
        # matchConditions is a list of conditions that must be met for a request to be sent to this
        # webhook. An empty list of matchConditions matches all requests.
        # There are a maximum of 64 match conditions allowed.
        #
        # The exact matching logic is (in order):
        #   1. If at least one matchCondition evaluates to FALSE, then the webhook is skipped.
        #   2. If ALL matchConditions evaluate to TRUE, then the webhook is called.
        #   3. If at least one matchCondition evaluates to an error (but none are FALSE):
        #      - If failurePolicy=Deny, then the webhook rejects the request
        #      - If failurePolicy=NoOpinion, then the error is ignored and the webhook is skipped
      matchConditions:
      # expression represents the expression which will be evaluated by CEL. Must evaluate to bool.
      # CEL expressions have access to the contents of the SubjectAccessReview in v1 version.
      # If version specified by subjectAccessReviewVersion in the request variable is v1beta1,
      # the contents would be converted to the v1 version before evaluating the CEL expression.
      #
      # Documentation on CEL: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/using-api/cel/
      #
      # only send resource requests to the webhook
      - expression: has(request.resourceAttributes)
      # only intercept requests to kube-system
      - expression: request.resourceAttributes.namespace == 'kube-system'
      # don't intercept requests from kube-system service accounts
      - expression: !('system:serviceaccounts:kube-system' in request.user.groups)
  - type: Node
    name: node
  - type: RBAC
    name: rbac
  - type: Webhook
    name: in-cluster-authorizer
    webhook:
      authorizedTTL: 5m
      unauthorizedTTL: 30s
      timeout: 3s
      subjectAccessReviewVersion: v1
      failurePolicy: NoOpinion
      connectionInfo:
        type: InClusterConfig

Privilege escalation via workload creation or edits

Users who can create/edit pods in a namespace, either directly or through a controller such as an operator, could escalate their privileges in that namespace.

Escalation paths

  • Mounting arbitrary secrets in that namespace
    • Can be used to access secrets meant for other workloads
    • Can be used to obtain a more privileged service account's service account token
  • Using arbitrary Service Accounts in that namespace
    • Can perform Kubernetes API actions as another workload (impersonation)
    • Can perform any privileged actions that Service Account has
  • Mounting configmaps meant for other workloads in that namespace
    • Can be used to obtain information meant for other workloads, such as DB host names.
  • Mounting volumes meant for other workloads in that namespace
    • Can be used to obtain information meant for other workloads, and change it.

What's next

8 - Using RBAC Authorization

Role-based access control (RBAC) is a method of regulating access to computer or network resources based on the roles of individual users within your organization.

RBAC authorization uses the rbac.authorization.k8s.io API group to drive authorization decisions, allowing you to dynamically configure policies through the Kubernetes API.

To enable RBAC, start the API server with the --authorization-mode flag set to a comma-separated list that includes RBAC; for example:

kube-apiserver --authorization-mode=Example,RBAC --other-options --more-options

API objects

The RBAC API declares four kinds of Kubernetes object: Role, ClusterRole, RoleBinding and ClusterRoleBinding. You can describe or amend the RBAC objects using tools such as kubectl, just like any other Kubernetes object.

Role and ClusterRole

An RBAC Role or ClusterRole contains rules that represent a set of permissions. Permissions are purely additive (there are no "deny" rules).

A Role always sets permissions within a particular namespace; when you create a Role, you have to specify the namespace it belongs in.

ClusterRole, by contrast, is a non-namespaced resource. The resources have different names (Role and ClusterRole) because a Kubernetes object always has to be either namespaced or not namespaced; it can't be both.

ClusterRoles have several uses. You can use a ClusterRole to:

  1. define permissions on namespaced resources and be granted access within individual namespace(s)
  2. define permissions on namespaced resources and be granted access across all namespaces
  3. define permissions on cluster-scoped resources

If you want to define a role within a namespace, use a Role; if you want to define a role cluster-wide, use a ClusterRole.

Role example

Here's an example Role in the "default" namespace that can be used to grant read access to pods:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: Role
metadata:
  namespace: default
  name: pod-reader
rules:
- apiGroups: [""] # "" indicates the core API group
  resources: ["pods"]
  verbs: ["get", "watch", "list"]

ClusterRole example

A ClusterRole can be used to grant the same permissions as a Role. Because ClusterRoles are cluster-scoped, you can also use them to grant access to:

  • cluster-scoped resources (like nodes)

  • non-resource endpoints (like /healthz)

  • namespaced resources (like Pods), across all namespaces

    For example: you can use a ClusterRole to allow a particular user to run kubectl get pods --all-namespaces

Here is an example of a ClusterRole that can be used to grant read access to secrets in any particular namespace, or across all namespaces (depending on how it is bound):

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  # "namespace" omitted since ClusterRoles are not namespaced
  name: secret-reader
rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Secret
  # objects is "secrets"
  resources: ["secrets"]
  verbs: ["get", "watch", "list"]

The name of a Role or a ClusterRole object must be a valid path segment name.

RoleBinding and ClusterRoleBinding

A role binding grants the permissions defined in a role to a user or set of users. It holds a list of subjects (users, groups, or service accounts), and a reference to the role being granted. A RoleBinding grants permissions within a specific namespace whereas a ClusterRoleBinding grants that access cluster-wide.

A RoleBinding may reference any Role in the same namespace. Alternatively, a RoleBinding can reference a ClusterRole and bind that ClusterRole to the namespace of the RoleBinding. If you want to bind a ClusterRole to all the namespaces in your cluster, you use a ClusterRoleBinding.

The name of a RoleBinding or ClusterRoleBinding object must be a valid path segment name.

RoleBinding examples

Here is an example of a RoleBinding that grants the "pod-reader" Role to the user "jane" within the "default" namespace. This allows "jane" to read pods in the "default" namespace.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
# This role binding allows "jane" to read pods in the "default" namespace.
# You need to already have a Role named "pod-reader" in that namespace.
kind: RoleBinding
metadata:
  name: read-pods
  namespace: default
subjects:
# You can specify more than one "subject"
- kind: User
  name: jane # "name" is case sensitive
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  # "roleRef" specifies the binding to a Role / ClusterRole
  kind: Role #this must be Role or ClusterRole
  name: pod-reader # this must match the name of the Role or ClusterRole you wish to bind to
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

A RoleBinding can also reference a ClusterRole to grant the permissions defined in that ClusterRole to resources inside the RoleBinding's namespace. This kind of reference lets you define a set of common roles across your cluster, then reuse them within multiple namespaces.

For instance, even though the following RoleBinding refers to a ClusterRole, "dave" (the subject, case sensitive) will only be able to read Secrets in the "development" namespace, because the RoleBinding's namespace (in its metadata) is "development".

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
# This role binding allows "dave" to read secrets in the "development" namespace.
# You need to already have a ClusterRole named "secret-reader".
kind: RoleBinding
metadata:
  name: read-secrets
  #
  # The namespace of the RoleBinding determines where the permissions are granted.
  # This only grants permissions within the "development" namespace.
  namespace: development
subjects:
- kind: User
  name: dave # Name is case sensitive
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: secret-reader
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

ClusterRoleBinding example

To grant permissions across a whole cluster, you can use a ClusterRoleBinding. The following ClusterRoleBinding allows any user in the group "manager" to read secrets in any namespace.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
# This cluster role binding allows anyone in the "manager" group to read secrets in any namespace.
kind: ClusterRoleBinding
metadata:
  name: read-secrets-global
subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: manager # Name is case sensitive
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: secret-reader
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

After you create a binding, you cannot change the Role or ClusterRole that it refers to. If you try to change a binding's roleRef, you get a validation error. If you do want to change the roleRef for a binding, you need to remove the binding object and create a replacement.

There are two reasons for this restriction:

  1. Making roleRef immutable allows granting someone update permission on an existing binding object, so that they can manage the list of subjects, without being able to change the role that is granted to those subjects.
  2. A binding to a different role is a fundamentally different binding. Requiring a binding to be deleted/recreated in order to change the roleRef ensures the full list of subjects in the binding is intended to be granted the new role (as opposed to enabling or accidentally modifying only the roleRef without verifying all of the existing subjects should be given the new role's permissions).

The kubectl auth reconcile command-line utility creates or updates a manifest file containing RBAC objects, and handles deleting and recreating binding objects if required to change the role they refer to. See command usage and examples for more information.

Referring to resources

In the Kubernetes API, most resources are represented and accessed using a string representation of their object name, such as pods for a Pod. RBAC refers to resources using exactly the same name that appears in the URL for the relevant API endpoint. Some Kubernetes APIs involve a subresource, such as the logs for a Pod. A request for a Pod's logs looks like:

GET /api/v1/namespaces/{namespace}/pods/{name}/log

In this case, pods is the namespaced resource for Pod resources, and log is a subresource of pods. To represent this in an RBAC role, use a slash (/) to delimit the resource and subresource. To allow a subject to read pods and also access the log subresource for each of those Pods, you write:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: Role
metadata:
  namespace: default
  name: pod-and-pod-logs-reader
rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  resources: ["pods", "pods/log"]
  verbs: ["get", "list"]

You can also refer to resources by name for certain requests through the resourceNames list. When specified, requests can be restricted to individual instances of a resource. Here is an example that restricts its subject to only get or update a ConfigMap named my-configmap:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: Role
metadata:
  namespace: default
  name: configmap-updater
rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing ConfigMap
  # objects is "configmaps"
  resources: ["configmaps"]
  resourceNames: ["my-configmap"]
  verbs: ["update", "get"]

Rather than referring to individual resources, apiGroups, and verbs, you can use the wildcard * symbol to refer to all such objects. For nonResourceURLs, you can use the wildcard * as a suffix glob match. For resourceNames, an empty set means that everything is allowed. Here is an example that allows access to perform any current and future action on all current and future resources in the example.com API group. This is similar to the built-in cluster-admin role.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: Role
metadata:
  namespace: default
  name: example.com-superuser # DO NOT USE THIS ROLE, IT IS JUST AN EXAMPLE
rules:
- apiGroups: ["example.com"]
  resources: ["*"]
  verbs: ["*"]

Aggregated ClusterRoles

You can aggregate several ClusterRoles into one combined ClusterRole. A controller, running as part of the cluster control plane, watches for ClusterRole objects with an aggregationRule set. The aggregationRule defines a label selector that the controller uses to match other ClusterRole objects that should be combined into the rules field of this one.

Here is an example aggregated ClusterRole:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: monitoring
aggregationRule:
  clusterRoleSelectors:
  - matchLabels:
      rbac.example.com/aggregate-to-monitoring: "true"
rules: [] # The control plane automatically fills in the rules

If you create a new ClusterRole that matches the label selector of an existing aggregated ClusterRole, that change triggers adding the new rules into the aggregated ClusterRole. Here is an example that adds rules to the "monitoring" ClusterRole, by creating another ClusterRole labeled rbac.example.com/aggregate-to-monitoring: true.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: monitoring-endpoints
  labels:
    rbac.example.com/aggregate-to-monitoring: "true"
# When you create the "monitoring-endpoints" ClusterRole,
# the rules below will be added to the "monitoring" ClusterRole.
rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  resources: ["services", "endpointslices", "pods"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch"]

The default user-facing roles use ClusterRole aggregation. This lets you, as a cluster administrator, include rules for custom resources, such as those served by CustomResourceDefinitions or aggregated API servers, to extend the default roles.

For example: the following ClusterRoles let the "admin" and "edit" default roles manage the custom resource named CronTab, whereas the "view" role can perform only read actions on CronTab resources. You can assume that CronTab objects are named "crontabs" in URLs as seen by the API server.

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: aggregate-cron-tabs-edit
  labels:
    # Add these permissions to the "admin" and "edit" default roles.
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-admin: "true"
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-edit: "true"
rules:
- apiGroups: ["stable.example.com"]
  resources: ["crontabs"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch", "create", "update", "patch", "delete"]
---
kind: ClusterRole
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
metadata:
  name: aggregate-cron-tabs-view
  labels:
    # Add these permissions to the "view" default role.
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-view: "true"
rules:
- apiGroups: ["stable.example.com"]
  resources: ["crontabs"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch"]

Role examples

The following examples are excerpts from Role or ClusterRole objects, showing only the rules section.

Allow reading "pods" resources in the core API Group:

rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Pod
  # objects is "pods"
  resources: ["pods"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch"]

Allow reading/writing Deployments (at the HTTP level: objects with "deployments" in the resource part of their URL) in the "apps" API groups:

rules:
- apiGroups: ["apps"]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Deployment
  # objects is "deployments"
  resources: ["deployments"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch", "create", "update", "patch", "delete"]

Allow reading Pods in the core API group, as well as reading or writing Job resources in the "batch" API group:

rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Pod
  # objects is "pods"
  resources: ["pods"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch"]
- apiGroups: ["batch"]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Job
  # objects is "jobs"
  resources: ["jobs"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch", "create", "update", "patch", "delete"]

Allow reading a ConfigMap named "my-config" (must be bound with a RoleBinding to limit to a single ConfigMap in a single namespace):

rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing ConfigMap
  # objects is "configmaps"
  resources: ["configmaps"]
  resourceNames: ["my-config"]
  verbs: ["get"]

Allow reading the resource "nodes" in the core group (because a Node is cluster-scoped, this must be in a ClusterRole bound with a ClusterRoleBinding to be effective):

rules:
- apiGroups: [""]
  #
  # at the HTTP level, the name of the resource for accessing Node
  # objects is "nodes"
  resources: ["nodes"]
  verbs: ["get", "list", "watch"]

Allow GET and POST requests to the non-resource endpoint /healthz and all subpaths (must be in a ClusterRole bound with a ClusterRoleBinding to be effective):

rules:
- nonResourceURLs: ["/healthz", "/healthz/*"] # '*' in a nonResourceURL is a suffix glob match
  verbs: ["get", "post"]

Referring to subjects

A RoleBinding or ClusterRoleBinding binds a role to subjects. Subjects can be groups, users or ServiceAccounts.

Kubernetes represents usernames as strings. These can be: plain names, such as "alice"; email-style names, like "bob@example.com"; or numeric user IDs represented as a string. It is up to you as a cluster administrator to configure the authentication modules so that authentication produces usernames in the format you want.

In Kubernetes, Authenticator modules provide group information. Groups, like users, are represented as strings, and that string has no format requirements, other than that the prefix system: is reserved.

ServiceAccounts have names prefixed with system:serviceaccount:, and belong to groups that have names prefixed with system:serviceaccounts:.

RoleBinding examples

The following examples are RoleBinding excerpts that only show the subjects section.

For a user named alice@example.com:

subjects:
- kind: User
  name: "alice@example.com"
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For a group named frontend-admins:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: "frontend-admins"
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For the default service account in the "kube-system" namespace:

subjects:
- kind: ServiceAccount
  name: default
  namespace: kube-system

For all service accounts in the "qa" namespace:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:serviceaccounts:qa
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For all service accounts in any namespace:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:serviceaccounts
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For all authenticated users:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:authenticated
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For all unauthenticated users:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:unauthenticated
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

For all users:

subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:authenticated
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
- kind: Group
  name: system:unauthenticated
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

Default roles and role bindings

API servers create a set of default ClusterRole and ClusterRoleBinding objects. Many of these are system: prefixed, which indicates that the resource is directly managed by the cluster control plane. All of the default ClusterRoles and ClusterRoleBindings are labeled with kubernetes.io/bootstrapping=rbac-defaults.

Auto-reconciliation

At each start-up, the API server updates default cluster roles with any missing permissions, and updates default cluster role bindings with any missing subjects. This allows the cluster to repair accidental modifications, and helps to keep roles and role bindings up-to-date as permissions and subjects change in new Kubernetes releases.

To opt out of this reconciliation, set the rbac.authorization.kubernetes.io/autoupdate annotation on a default cluster role or rolebinding to false. Be aware that missing default permissions and subjects can result in non-functional clusters.

Auto-reconciliation is enabled by default if the RBAC authorizer is active.

API discovery roles

Default role bindings authorize unauthenticated and authenticated users to read API information that is deemed safe to be publicly accessible (including CustomResourceDefinitions). To disable anonymous unauthenticated access, add --anonymous-auth=false to the API server configuration.

To view the configuration of these roles via kubectl run:

kubectl get clusterroles system:discovery -o yaml
Kubernetes RBAC API discovery roles
Default ClusterRoleDefault ClusterRoleBindingDescription
system:basic-usersystem:authenticated groupAllows a user read-only access to basic information about themselves. Prior to v1.14, this role was also bound to system:unauthenticated by default.
system:discoverysystem:authenticated groupAllows read-only access to API discovery endpoints needed to discover and negotiate an API level. Prior to v1.14, this role was also bound to system:unauthenticated by default.
system:public-info-viewersystem:authenticated and system:unauthenticated groupsAllows read-only access to non-sensitive information about the cluster. Introduced in Kubernetes v1.14.

User-facing roles

Some of the default ClusterRoles are not system: prefixed. These are intended to be user-facing roles. They include super-user roles (cluster-admin), roles intended to be granted cluster-wide using ClusterRoleBindings, and roles intended to be granted within particular namespaces using RoleBindings (admin, edit, view).

User-facing ClusterRoles use ClusterRole aggregation to allow admins to include rules for custom resources on these ClusterRoles. To add rules to the admin, edit, or view roles, create a ClusterRole with one or more of the following labels:

metadata:
  labels:
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-admin: "true"
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-edit: "true"
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-view: "true"

Default ClusterRoleDefault ClusterRoleBindingDescription
cluster-adminsystem:masters groupAllows super-user access to perform any action on any resource. When used in a ClusterRoleBinding, it gives full control over every resource in the cluster and in all namespaces. When used in a RoleBinding, it gives full control over every resource in the role binding's namespace, including the namespace itself.
adminNoneAllows admin access, intended to be granted within a namespace using a RoleBinding.

If used in a RoleBinding, allows read/write access to most resources in a namespace, including the ability to create roles and role bindings within the namespace. This role does not allow write access to resource quota or to the namespace itself. This role also does not allow write access to EndpointSlices (or Endpoints) in clusters created using Kubernetes v1.22+. More information is available in the "Write Access for EndpointSlices and Endpoints" section.

editNoneAllows read/write access to most objects in a namespace.

This role does not allow viewing or modifying roles or role bindings. However, this role allows accessing Secrets and running Pods as any ServiceAccount in the namespace, so it can be used to gain the API access levels of any ServiceAccount in the namespace. This role also does not allow write access to EndpointSlices (or Endpoints) in clusters created using Kubernetes v1.22+. More information is available in the "Write Access for EndpointSlices and Endpoints" section.

viewNoneAllows read-only access to see most objects in a namespace. It does not allow viewing roles or role bindings.

This role does not allow viewing Secrets, since reading the contents of Secrets enables access to ServiceAccount credentials in the namespace, which would allow API access as any ServiceAccount in the namespace (a form of privilege escalation).

Core component roles

Default ClusterRoleDefault ClusterRoleBindingDescription
system:kube-schedulersystem:kube-scheduler userAllows access to the resources required by the scheduler component.
system:volume-schedulersystem:kube-scheduler userAllows access to the volume resources required by the kube-scheduler component.
system:kube-controller-managersystem:kube-controller-manager userAllows access to the resources required by the controller manager component. The permissions required by individual controllers are detailed in the controller roles.
system:nodeNoneAllows access to resources required by the kubelet, including read access to all secrets, and write access to all pod status objects.

You should use the Node authorizer and NodeRestriction admission plugin instead of the system:node role, and allow granting API access to kubelets based on the Pods scheduled to run on them.

The system:node role only exists for compatibility with Kubernetes clusters upgraded from versions prior to v1.8.

system:node-proxiersystem:kube-proxy userAllows access to the resources required by the kube-proxy component.

Other component roles

Default ClusterRoleDefault ClusterRoleBindingDescription
system:auth-delegatorNoneAllows delegated authentication and authorization checks. This is commonly used by add-on API servers for unified authentication and authorization.
system:heapsterNoneRole for the Heapster component (deprecated).
system:kube-aggregatorNoneRole for the kube-aggregator component.
system:kube-dnskube-dns service account in the kube-system namespaceRole for the kube-dns component.
system:kubelet-api-adminNoneAllows full access to the kubelet API.
system:node-bootstrapperNoneAllows access to the resources required to perform kubelet TLS bootstrapping.
system:node-problem-detectorNoneRole for the node-problem-detector component.
system:persistent-volume-provisionerNoneAllows access to the resources required by most dynamic volume provisioners.
system:monitoringsystem:monitoring groupAllows read access to control-plane monitoring endpoints (i.e. kube-apiserver liveness and readiness endpoints (/healthz, /livez, /readyz), the individual health-check endpoints (/healthz/*, /livez/*, /readyz/*), and /metrics). Note that individual health check endpoints and the metric endpoint may expose sensitive information.

Roles for built-in controllers

The Kubernetes controller manager runs controllers that are built in to the Kubernetes control plane. When invoked with --use-service-account-credentials, kube-controller-manager starts each controller using a separate service account. Corresponding roles exist for each built-in controller, prefixed with system:controller:. If the controller manager is not started with --use-service-account-credentials, it runs all control loops using its own credential, which must be granted all the relevant roles. These roles include:

  • system:controller:attachdetach-controller
  • system:controller:certificate-controller
  • system:controller:clusterrole-aggregation-controller
  • system:controller:cronjob-controller
  • system:controller:daemon-set-controller
  • system:controller:deployment-controller
  • system:controller:disruption-controller
  • system:controller:endpoint-controller
  • system:controller:expand-controller
  • system:controller:generic-garbage-collector
  • system:controller:horizontal-pod-autoscaler
  • system:controller:job-controller
  • system:controller:namespace-controller
  • system:controller:node-controller
  • system:controller:persistent-volume-binder
  • system:controller:pod-garbage-collector
  • system:controller:pv-protection-controller
  • system:controller:pvc-protection-controller
  • system:controller:replicaset-controller
  • system:controller:replication-controller
  • system:controller:resourcequota-controller
  • system:controller:root-ca-cert-publisher
  • system:controller:route-controller
  • system:controller:service-account-controller
  • system:controller:service-controller
  • system:controller:statefulset-controller
  • system:controller:ttl-controller

Privilege escalation prevention and bootstrapping

The RBAC API prevents users from escalating privileges by editing roles or role bindings. Because this is enforced at the API level, it applies even when the RBAC authorizer is not in use.

Restrictions on role creation or update

You can only create/update a role if at least one of the following things is true:

  1. You already have all the permissions contained in the role, at the same scope as the object being modified (cluster-wide for a ClusterRole, within the same namespace or cluster-wide for a Role).
  2. You are granted explicit permission to perform the escalate verb on the roles or clusterroles resource in the rbac.authorization.k8s.io API group.

For example, if user-1 does not have the ability to list Secrets cluster-wide, they cannot create a ClusterRole containing that permission. To allow a user to create/update roles:

  1. Grant them a role that allows them to create/update Role or ClusterRole objects, as desired.
  2. Grant them permission to include specific permissions in the roles they create/update:
    • implicitly, by giving them those permissions (if they attempt to create or modify a Role or ClusterRole with permissions they themselves have not been granted, the API request will be forbidden)
    • or explicitly allow specifying any permission in a Role or ClusterRole by giving them permission to perform the escalate verb on roles or clusterroles resources in the rbac.authorization.k8s.io API group

Restrictions on role binding creation or update

You can only create/update a role binding if you already have all the permissions contained in the referenced role (at the same scope as the role binding) or if you have been authorized to perform the bind verb on the referenced role. For example, if user-1 does not have the ability to list Secrets cluster-wide, they cannot create a ClusterRoleBinding to a role that grants that permission. To allow a user to create/update role bindings:

  1. Grant them a role that allows them to create/update RoleBinding or ClusterRoleBinding objects, as desired.
  2. Grant them permissions needed to bind a particular role:
    • implicitly, by giving them the permissions contained in the role.
    • explicitly, by giving them permission to perform the bind verb on the particular Role (or ClusterRole).

For example, this ClusterRole and RoleBinding would allow user-1 to grant other users the admin, edit, and view roles in the namespace user-1-namespace:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  name: role-grantor
rules:
- apiGroups: ["rbac.authorization.k8s.io"]
  resources: ["rolebindings"]
  verbs: ["create"]
- apiGroups: ["rbac.authorization.k8s.io"]
  resources: ["clusterroles"]
  verbs: ["bind"]
  # omit resourceNames to allow binding any ClusterRole
  resourceNames: ["admin","edit","view"]
---
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: RoleBinding
metadata:
  name: role-grantor-binding
  namespace: user-1-namespace
roleRef:
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: role-grantor
subjects:
- apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
  kind: User
  name: user-1

When bootstrapping the first roles and role bindings, it is necessary for the initial user to grant permissions they do not yet have. To bootstrap initial roles and role bindings:

  • Use a credential with the "system:masters" group, which is bound to the "cluster-admin" super-user role by the default bindings.

Command-line utilities

kubectl create role

Creates a Role object defining permissions within a single namespace. Examples:

  • Create a Role named "pod-reader" that allows users to perform get, watch and list on pods:

    kubectl create role pod-reader --verb=get --verb=list --verb=watch --resource=pods
    
  • Create a Role named "pod-reader" with resourceNames specified:

    kubectl create role pod-reader --verb=get --resource=pods --resource-name=readablepod --resource-name=anotherpod
    
  • Create a Role named "foo" with apiGroups specified:

    kubectl create role foo --verb=get,list,watch --resource=replicasets.apps
    
  • Create a Role named "foo" with subresource permissions:

    kubectl create role foo --verb=get,list,watch --resource=pods,pods/status
    
  • Create a Role named "my-component-lease-holder" with permissions to get/update a resource with a specific name:

    kubectl create role my-component-lease-holder --verb=get,list,watch,update --resource=lease --resource-name=my-component
    

kubectl create clusterrole

Creates a ClusterRole. Examples:

  • Create a ClusterRole named "pod-reader" that allows user to perform get, watch and list on pods:

    kubectl create clusterrole pod-reader --verb=get,list,watch --resource=pods
    
  • Create a ClusterRole named "pod-reader" with resourceNames specified:

    kubectl create clusterrole pod-reader --verb=get --resource=pods --resource-name=readablepod --resource-name=anotherpod
    
  • Create a ClusterRole named "foo" with apiGroups specified:

    kubectl create clusterrole foo --verb=get,list,watch --resource=replicasets.apps
    
  • Create a ClusterRole named "foo" with subresource permissions:

    kubectl create clusterrole foo --verb=get,list,watch --resource=pods,pods/status
    
  • Create a ClusterRole named "foo" with nonResourceURL specified:

    kubectl create clusterrole "foo" --verb=get --non-resource-url=/logs/*
    
  • Create a ClusterRole named "monitoring" with an aggregationRule specified:

    kubectl create clusterrole monitoring --aggregation-rule="rbac.example.com/aggregate-to-monitoring=true"
    

kubectl create rolebinding

Grants a Role or ClusterRole within a specific namespace. Examples:

  • Within the namespace "acme", grant the permissions in the "admin" ClusterRole to a user named "bob":

    kubectl create rolebinding bob-admin-binding --clusterrole=admin --user=bob --namespace=acme
    
  • Within the namespace "acme", grant the permissions in the "view" ClusterRole to the service account in the namespace "acme" named "myapp":

    kubectl create rolebinding myapp-view-binding --clusterrole=view --serviceaccount=acme:myapp --namespace=acme
    
  • Within the namespace "acme", grant the permissions in the "view" ClusterRole to a service account in the namespace "myappnamespace" named "myapp":

    kubectl create rolebinding myappnamespace-myapp-view-binding --clusterrole=view --serviceaccount=myappnamespace:myapp --namespace=acme
    

kubectl create clusterrolebinding

Grants a ClusterRole across the entire cluster (all namespaces). Examples:

  • Across the entire cluster, grant the permissions in the "cluster-admin" ClusterRole to a user named "root":

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding root-cluster-admin-binding --clusterrole=cluster-admin --user=root
    
  • Across the entire cluster, grant the permissions in the "system:node-proxier" ClusterRole to a user named "system:kube-proxy":

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding kube-proxy-binding --clusterrole=system:node-proxier --user=system:kube-proxy
    
  • Across the entire cluster, grant the permissions in the "view" ClusterRole to a service account named "myapp" in the namespace "acme":

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding myapp-view-binding --clusterrole=view --serviceaccount=acme:myapp
    

kubectl auth reconcile

Creates or updates rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 API objects from a manifest file.

Missing objects are created, and the containing namespace is created for namespaced objects, if required.

Existing roles are updated to include the permissions in the input objects, and remove extra permissions if --remove-extra-permissions is specified.

Existing bindings are updated to include the subjects in the input objects, and remove extra subjects if --remove-extra-subjects is specified.

Examples:

  • Test applying a manifest file of RBAC objects, displaying changes that would be made:

    kubectl auth reconcile -f my-rbac-rules.yaml --dry-run=client
    
  • Apply a manifest file of RBAC objects, preserving any extra permissions (in roles) and any extra subjects (in bindings):

    kubectl auth reconcile -f my-rbac-rules.yaml
    
  • Apply a manifest file of RBAC objects, removing any extra permissions (in roles) and any extra subjects (in bindings):

    kubectl auth reconcile -f my-rbac-rules.yaml --remove-extra-subjects --remove-extra-permissions
    

ServiceAccount permissions

Default RBAC policies grant scoped permissions to control-plane components, nodes, and controllers, but grant no permissions to service accounts outside the kube-system namespace (beyond discovery permissions given to all authenticated users).

This allows you to grant particular roles to particular ServiceAccounts as needed. Fine-grained role bindings provide greater security, but require more effort to administrate. Broader grants can give unnecessary (and potentially escalating) API access to ServiceAccounts, but are easier to administrate.

In order from most secure to least secure, the approaches are:

  1. Grant a role to an application-specific service account (best practice)

    This requires the application to specify a serviceAccountName in its pod spec, and for the service account to be created (via the API, application manifest, kubectl create serviceaccount, etc.).

    For example, grant read-only permission within "my-namespace" to the "my-sa" service account:

    kubectl create rolebinding my-sa-view \
      --clusterrole=view \
      --serviceaccount=my-namespace:my-sa \
      --namespace=my-namespace
    
  2. Grant a role to the "default" service account in a namespace

    If an application does not specify a serviceAccountName, it uses the "default" service account.

    For example, grant read-only permission within "my-namespace" to the "default" service account:

    kubectl create rolebinding default-view \
      --clusterrole=view \
      --serviceaccount=my-namespace:default \
      --namespace=my-namespace
    

    Many add-ons run as the "default" service account in the kube-system namespace. To allow those add-ons to run with super-user access, grant cluster-admin permissions to the "default" service account in the kube-system namespace.

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding add-on-cluster-admin \
      --clusterrole=cluster-admin \
      --serviceaccount=kube-system:default
    
  3. Grant a role to all service accounts in a namespace

    If you want all applications in a namespace to have a role, no matter what service account they use, you can grant a role to the service account group for that namespace.

    For example, grant read-only permission within "my-namespace" to all service accounts in that namespace:

    kubectl create rolebinding serviceaccounts-view \
      --clusterrole=view \
      --group=system:serviceaccounts:my-namespace \
      --namespace=my-namespace
    
  4. Grant a limited role to all service accounts cluster-wide (discouraged)

    If you don't want to manage permissions per-namespace, you can grant a cluster-wide role to all service accounts.

    For example, grant read-only permission across all namespaces to all service accounts in the cluster:

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding serviceaccounts-view \
      --clusterrole=view \
     --group=system:serviceaccounts
    
  5. Grant super-user access to all service accounts cluster-wide (strongly discouraged)

    If you don't care about partitioning permissions at all, you can grant super-user access to all service accounts.

    kubectl create clusterrolebinding serviceaccounts-cluster-admin \
      --clusterrole=cluster-admin \
      --group=system:serviceaccounts
    

Write access for EndpointSlices and Endpoints

Kubernetes clusters created before Kubernetes v1.22 include write access to EndpointSlices (and Endpoints) in the aggregated "edit" and "admin" roles. As a mitigation for CVE-2021-25740, this access is not part of the aggregated roles in clusters that you create using Kubernetes v1.22 or later.

Existing clusters that have been upgraded to Kubernetes v1.22 will not be subject to this change. The CVE announcement includes guidance for restricting this access in existing clusters.

If you want new clusters to retain this level of access in the aggregated roles, you can create the following ClusterRole:

apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRole
metadata:
  annotations:
    kubernetes.io/description: |-
      Add endpoints write permissions to the edit and admin roles. This was
      removed by default in 1.22 because of CVE-2021-25740. See
      https://issue.k8s.io/103675. This can allow writers to direct LoadBalancer
      or Ingress implementations to expose backend IPs that would not otherwise
      be accessible, and can circumvent network policies or security controls
      intended to prevent/isolate access to those backends.
      EndpointSlices were never included in the edit or admin roles, so there
      is nothing to restore for the EndpointSlice API.      
  labels:
    rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-edit: "true"
  name: custom:aggregate-to-edit:endpoints # you can change this if you wish
rules:
  - apiGroups: [""]
    resources: ["endpoints"]
    verbs: ["create", "delete", "deletecollection", "patch", "update"]

Upgrading from ABAC

Clusters that originally ran older Kubernetes versions often used permissive ABAC policies, including granting full API access to all service accounts.

Default RBAC policies grant scoped permissions to control-plane components, nodes, and controllers, but grant no permissions to service accounts outside the kube-system namespace (beyond discovery permissions given to all authenticated users).

While far more secure, this can be disruptive to existing workloads expecting to automatically receive API permissions. Here are two approaches for managing this transition:

Parallel authorizers

Run both the RBAC and ABAC authorizers, and specify a policy file that contains the legacy ABAC policy:

--authorization-mode=...,RBAC,ABAC --authorization-policy-file=mypolicy.json

To explain that first command line option in detail: if earlier authorizers, such as Node, deny a request, then the RBAC authorizer attempts to authorize the API request. If RBAC also denies that API request, the ABAC authorizer is then run. This means that any request allowed by either the RBAC or ABAC policies is allowed.

When the kube-apiserver is run with a log level of 5 or higher for the RBAC component (--vmodule=rbac*=5 or --v=5), you can see RBAC denials in the API server log (prefixed with RBAC). You can use that information to determine which roles need to be granted to which users, groups, or service accounts.

Once you have granted roles to service accounts and workloads are running with no RBAC denial messages in the server logs, you can remove the ABAC authorizer.

Permissive RBAC permissions

You can replicate a permissive ABAC policy using RBAC role bindings.

After you have transitioned to use RBAC, you should adjust the access controls for your cluster to ensure that these meet your information security needs.

9 - Using ABAC Authorization

Attribute-based access control (ABAC) defines an access control paradigm whereby access rights are granted to users through the use of policies which combine attributes together.

Policy File Format

To enable ABAC mode, specify --authorization-policy-file=SOME_FILENAME and --authorization-mode=ABAC on startup.

The file format is one JSON object per line. There should be no enclosing list or map, only one map per line.

Each line is a "policy object", where each such object is a map with the following properties:

  • Versioning properties:
    • apiVersion, type string; valid values are "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1". Allows versioning and conversion of the policy format.
    • kind, type string: valid values are "Policy". Allows versioning and conversion of the policy format.
  • spec property set to a map with the following properties:
    • Subject-matching properties:
      • user, type string; the user-string from --token-auth-file. If you specify user, it must match the username of the authenticated user.
      • group, type string; if you specify group, it must match one of the groups of the authenticated user. system:authenticated matches all authenticated requests. system:unauthenticated matches all unauthenticated requests.
    • Resource-matching properties:
      • apiGroup, type string; an API group.
        • Ex: apps, networking.k8s.io
        • Wildcard: * matches all API groups.
      • namespace, type string; a namespace.
        • Ex: kube-system
        • Wildcard: * matches all resource requests.
      • resource, type string; a resource type
        • Ex: pods, deployments
        • Wildcard: * matches all resource requests.
    • Non-resource-matching properties:
      • nonResourcePath, type string; non-resource request paths.
        • Ex: /version or /apis
        • Wildcard:
          • * matches all non-resource requests.
          • /foo/* matches all subpaths of /foo/.
    • readonly, type boolean, when true, means that the Resource-matching policy only applies to get, list, and watch operations, Non-resource-matching policy only applies to get operation.

Authorization Algorithm

A request has attributes which correspond to the properties of a policy object.

When a request is received, the attributes are determined. Unknown attributes are set to the zero value of its type (e.g. empty string, 0, false).

A property set to "*" will match any value of the corresponding attribute.

The tuple of attributes is checked for a match against every policy in the policy file. If at least one line matches the request attributes, then the request is authorized (but may fail later validation).

To permit any authenticated user to do something, write a policy with the group property set to "system:authenticated".

To permit any unauthenticated user to do something, write a policy with the group property set to "system:unauthenticated".

To permit a user to do anything, write a policy with the apiGroup, namespace, resource, and nonResourcePath properties set to "*".

Kubectl

Kubectl uses the /api and /apis endpoints of apiserver to discover served resource types, and validates objects sent to the API by create/update operations using schema information located at /openapi/v2.

When using ABAC authorization, those special resources have to be explicitly exposed via the nonResourcePath property in a policy (see examples below):

  • /api, /api/*, /apis, and /apis/* for API version negotiation.
  • /version for retrieving the server version via kubectl version.
  • /swaggerapi/* for create/update operations.

To inspect the HTTP calls involved in a specific kubectl operation you can turn up the verbosity:

kubectl --v=8 version

Examples

  1. Alice can do anything to all resources:

    {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"user": "alice", "namespace": "*", "resource": "*", "apiGroup": "*"}}
    
  2. The kubelet can read any pods:

    {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"user": "kubelet", "namespace": "*", "resource": "pods", "readonly": true}}
    
  3. The kubelet can read and write events:

    {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"user": "kubelet", "namespace": "*", "resource": "events"}}
    
  4. Bob can just read pods in namespace "projectCaribou":

    {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"user": "bob", "namespace": "projectCaribou", "resource": "pods", "readonly": true}}
    
  5. Anyone can make read-only requests to all non-resource paths:

    {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"group": "system:authenticated", "readonly": true, "nonResourcePath": "*"}}
     {"apiVersion": "abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1", "kind": "Policy", "spec": {"group": "system:unauthenticated", "readonly": true, "nonResourcePath": "*"}}
    

Complete file example

A quick note on service accounts

Every service account has a corresponding ABAC username, and that service account's username is generated according to the naming convention:

system:serviceaccount:<namespace>:<serviceaccountname>

Creating a new namespace leads to the creation of a new service account in the following format:

system:serviceaccount:<namespace>:default

For example, if you wanted to grant the default service account (in the kube-system namespace) full privilege to the API using ABAC, you would add this line to your policy file:

{"apiVersion":"abac.authorization.kubernetes.io/v1beta1","kind":"Policy","spec":{"user":"system:serviceaccount:kube-system:default","namespace":"*","resource":"*","apiGroup":"*"}}

The apiserver will need to be restarted to pick up the new policy lines.

10 - Using Node Authorization

Node authorization is a special-purpose authorization mode that specifically authorizes API requests made by kubelets.

Overview

The Node authorizer allows a kubelet to perform API operations. This includes:

Read operations:

  • services
  • endpoints
  • nodes
  • pods
  • secrets, configmaps, persistent volume claims and persistent volumes related to pods bound to the kubelet's node

Write operations:

  • nodes and node status (enable the NodeRestriction admission plugin to limit a kubelet to modify its own node)
  • pods and pod status (enable the NodeRestriction admission plugin to limit a kubelet to modify pods bound to itself)
  • events

Auth-related operations:

  • read/write access to the CertificateSigningRequests API for TLS bootstrapping
  • the ability to create TokenReviews and SubjectAccessReviews for delegated authentication/authorization checks

In future releases, the node authorizer may add or remove permissions to ensure kubelets have the minimal set of permissions required to operate correctly.

In order to be authorized by the Node authorizer, kubelets must use a credential that identifies them as being in the system:nodes group, with a username of system:node:<nodeName>. This group and user name format match the identity created for each kubelet as part of kubelet TLS bootstrapping.

The value of <nodeName> must match precisely the name of the node as registered by the kubelet. By default, this is the host name as provided by hostname, or overridden via the kubelet option --hostname-override. However, when using the --cloud-provider kubelet option, the specific hostname may be determined by the cloud provider, ignoring the local hostname and the --hostname-override option. For specifics about how the kubelet determines the hostname, see the kubelet options reference.

To enable the Node authorizer, start the apiserver with --authorization-mode=Node.

To limit the API objects kubelets are able to write, enable the NodeRestriction admission plugin by starting the apiserver with --enable-admission-plugins=...,NodeRestriction,...

Migration considerations

Kubelets outside the system:nodes group

Kubelets outside the system:nodes group would not be authorized by the Node authorization mode, and would need to continue to be authorized via whatever mechanism currently authorizes them. The node admission plugin would not restrict requests from these kubelets.

Kubelets with undifferentiated usernames

In some deployments, kubelets have credentials that place them in the system:nodes group, but do not identify the particular node they are associated with, because they do not have a username in the system:node:... format. These kubelets would not be authorized by the Node authorization mode, and would need to continue to be authorized via whatever mechanism currently authorizes them.

The NodeRestriction admission plugin would ignore requests from these kubelets, since the default node identifier implementation would not consider that a node identity.

11 - Mapping PodSecurityPolicies to Pod Security Standards

The tables below enumerate the configuration parameters on PodSecurityPolicy objects, whether the field mutates and/or validates pods, and how the configuration values map to the Pod Security Standards.

For each applicable parameter, the allowed values for the Baseline and Restricted profiles are listed. Anything outside the allowed values for those profiles would fall under the Privileged profile. "No opinion" means all values are allowed under all Pod Security Standards.

For a step-by-step migration guide, see Migrate from PodSecurityPolicy to the Built-In PodSecurity Admission Controller.

PodSecurityPolicy Spec

The fields enumerated in this table are part of the PodSecurityPolicySpec, which is specified under the .spec field path.

Mapping PodSecurityPolicySpec fields to Pod Security Standards
PodSecurityPolicySpecTypePod Security Standards Equivalent
privilegedValidatingBaseline & Restricted: false / undefined / nil
defaultAddCapabilitiesMutating & ValidatingRequirements match allowedCapabilities below.
allowedCapabilitiesValidating

Baseline: subset of

  • AUDIT_WRITE
  • CHOWN
  • DAC_OVERRIDE
  • FOWNER
  • FSETID
  • KILL
  • MKNOD
  • NET_BIND_SERVICE
  • SETFCAP
  • SETGID
  • SETPCAP
  • SETUID
  • SYS_CHROOT

Restricted: empty / undefined / nil OR a list containing only NET_BIND_SERVICE

requiredDropCapabilitiesMutating & Validating

Baseline: no opinion

Restricted: must include ALL

volumesValidating

Baseline: anything except

  • hostPath
  • *

Restricted: subset of

  • configMap
  • csi
  • downwardAPI
  • emptyDir
  • ephemeral
  • persistentVolumeClaim
  • projected
  • secret
hostNetworkValidatingBaseline & Restricted: false / undefined / nil
hostPortsValidatingBaseline & Restricted: undefined / nil / empty
hostPIDValidatingBaseline & Restricted: false / undefined / nil
hostIPCValidatingBaseline & Restricted: false / undefined / nil
seLinuxMutating & Validating

Baseline & Restricted: seLinux.rule is MustRunAs, with the following options

  • user is unset ("" / undefined / nil)
  • role is unset ("" / undefined / nil)
  • type is unset or one of: container_t, container_init_t, container_kvm_t
  • level is anything
runAsUserMutating & Validating

Baseline: Anything

Restricted: rule is MustRunAsNonRoot

runAsGroupMutating (MustRunAs) & ValidatingNo opinion
supplementalGroupsMutating & ValidatingNo opinion
fsGroupMutating & ValidatingNo opinion
readOnlyRootFilesystemMutating & ValidatingNo opinion
defaultAllowPrivilegeEscalationMutatingNo opinion (non-validating)
allowPrivilegeEscalationMutating & Validating

Only mutating if set to false

Baseline: No opinion

Restricted: false

allowedHostPathsValidatingNo opinion (volumes takes precedence)
allowedFlexVolumesValidatingNo opinion (volumes takes precedence)
allowedCSIDriversValidatingNo opinion (volumes takes precedence)
allowedUnsafeSysctlsValidatingBaseline & Restricted: undefined / nil / empty
forbiddenSysctlsValidatingNo opinion
allowedProcMountTypes
(alpha feature)
ValidatingBaseline & Restricted: ["Default"] OR undefined / nil / empty
runtimeClass
 .defaultRuntimeClassName
MutatingNo opinion
runtimeClass
 .allowedRuntimeClassNames
ValidatingNo opinion

PodSecurityPolicy annotations

The annotations enumerated in this table can be specified under .metadata.annotations on the PodSecurityPolicy object.

Mapping PodSecurityPolicy annotations to Pod Security Standards
PSP AnnotationTypePod Security Standards Equivalent
seccomp.security.alpha.kubernetes.io
/defaultProfileName
MutatingNo opinion
seccomp.security.alpha.kubernetes.io
/allowedProfileNames
Validating

Baseline: "runtime/default," (Trailing comma to allow unset)

Restricted: "runtime/default" (No trailing comma)

localhost/* values are also permitted for both Baseline & Restricted.

apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io
/defaultProfileName
MutatingNo opinion
apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io
/allowedProfileNames
Validating

Baseline: "runtime/default," (Trailing comma to allow unset)

Restricted: "runtime/default" (No trailing comma)

localhost/* values are also permitted for both Baseline & Restricted.

12 - Webhook Mode

A WebHook is an HTTP callback: an HTTP POST that occurs when something happens; a simple event-notification via HTTP POST. A web application implementing WebHooks will POST a message to a URL when certain things happen.

When specified, mode Webhook causes Kubernetes to query an outside REST service when determining user privileges.

Configuration File Format

Mode Webhook requires a file for HTTP configuration, specify by the --authorization-webhook-config-file=SOME_FILENAME flag.

The configuration file uses the kubeconfig file format. Within the file "users" refers to the API Server webhook and "clusters" refers to the remote service.

A configuration example which uses HTTPS client auth:

# Kubernetes API version
apiVersion: v1
# kind of the API object
kind: Config
# clusters refers to the remote service.
clusters:
  - name: name-of-remote-authz-service
    cluster:
      # CA for verifying the remote service.
      certificate-authority: /path/to/ca.pem
      # URL of remote service to query. Must use 'https'. May not include parameters.
      server: https://authz.example.com/authorize

# users refers to the API Server's webhook configuration.
users:
  - name: name-of-api-server
    user:
      client-certificate: /path/to/cert.pem # cert for the webhook plugin to use
      client-key: /path/to/key.pem          # key matching the cert

# kubeconfig files require a context. Provide one for the API Server.
current-context: webhook
contexts:
- context:
    cluster: name-of-remote-authz-service
    user: name-of-api-server
  name: webhook

Request Payloads

When faced with an authorization decision, the API Server POSTs a JSON- serialized authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1 SubjectAccessReview object describing the action. This object contains fields describing the user attempting to make the request, and either details about the resource being accessed or requests attributes.

Note that webhook API objects are subject to the same versioning compatibility rules as other Kubernetes API objects. Implementers should be aware of looser compatibility promises for beta objects and check the "apiVersion" field of the request to ensure correct deserialization. Additionally, the API Server must enable the authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1 API extensions group (--runtime-config=authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1=true).

An example request body:

{
  "apiVersion": "authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "SubjectAccessReview",
  "spec": {
    "resourceAttributes": {
      "namespace": "kittensandponies",
      "verb": "get",
      "group": "unicorn.example.org",
      "resource": "pods"
    },
    "user": "jane",
    "group": [
      "group1",
      "group2"
    ]
  }
}

The remote service is expected to fill the status field of the request and respond to either allow or disallow access. The response body's spec field is ignored and may be omitted. A permissive response would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "SubjectAccessReview",
  "status": {
    "allowed": true
  }
}

For disallowing access there are two methods.

The first method is preferred in most cases, and indicates the authorization webhook does not allow, or has "no opinion" about the request, but if other authorizers are configured, they are given a chance to allow the request. If there are no other authorizers, or none of them allow the request, the request is forbidden. The webhook would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "SubjectAccessReview",
  "status": {
    "allowed": false,
    "reason": "user does not have read access to the namespace"
  }
}

The second method denies immediately, short-circuiting evaluation by other configured authorizers. This should only be used by webhooks that have detailed knowledge of the full authorizer configuration of the cluster. The webhook would return:

{
  "apiVersion": "authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "SubjectAccessReview",
  "status": {
    "allowed": false,
    "denied": true,
    "reason": "user does not have read access to the namespace"
  }
}

Access to non-resource paths are sent as:

{
  "apiVersion": "authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1",
  "kind": "SubjectAccessReview",
  "spec": {
    "nonResourceAttributes": {
      "path": "/debug",
      "verb": "get"
    },
    "user": "jane",
    "group": [
      "group1",
      "group2"
    ]
  }
}

Non-resource paths include: /api, /apis, /metrics, /logs, /debug, /healthz, /livez, /openapi/v2, /readyz, and /version. Clients require access to /api, /api/*, /apis, /apis/*, and /version to discover what resources and versions are present on the server. Access to other non-resource paths can be disallowed without restricting access to the REST api.

For further documentation refer to the authorization.v1beta1 API objects and webhook.go.

13 - Kubelet authentication/authorization

Overview

A kubelet's HTTPS endpoint exposes APIs which give access to data of varying sensitivity, and allow you to perform operations with varying levels of power on the node and within containers.

This document describes how to authenticate and authorize access to the kubelet's HTTPS endpoint.

Kubelet authentication

By default, requests to the kubelet's HTTPS endpoint that are not rejected by other configured authentication methods are treated as anonymous requests, and given a username of system:anonymous and a group of system:unauthenticated.

To disable anonymous access and send 401 Unauthorized responses to unauthenticated requests:

  • start the kubelet with the --anonymous-auth=false flag

To enable X509 client certificate authentication to the kubelet's HTTPS endpoint:

  • start the kubelet with the --client-ca-file flag, providing a CA bundle to verify client certificates with
  • start the apiserver with --kubelet-client-certificate and --kubelet-client-key flags
  • see the apiserver authentication documentation for more details

To enable API bearer tokens (including service account tokens) to be used to authenticate to the kubelet's HTTPS endpoint:

  • ensure the authentication.k8s.io/v1beta1 API group is enabled in the API server
  • start the kubelet with the --authentication-token-webhook and --kubeconfig flags
  • the kubelet calls the TokenReview API on the configured API server to determine user information from bearer tokens

Kubelet authorization

Any request that is successfully authenticated (including an anonymous request) is then authorized. The default authorization mode is AlwaysAllow, which allows all requests.

There are many possible reasons to subdivide access to the kubelet API:

  • anonymous auth is enabled, but anonymous users' ability to call the kubelet API should be limited
  • bearer token auth is enabled, but arbitrary API users' (like service accounts) ability to call the kubelet API should be limited
  • client certificate auth is enabled, but only some of the client certificates signed by the configured CA should be allowed to use the kubelet API

To subdivide access to the kubelet API, delegate authorization to the API server:

  • ensure the authorization.k8s.io/v1beta1 API group is enabled in the API server
  • start the kubelet with the --authorization-mode=Webhook and the --kubeconfig flags
  • the kubelet calls the SubjectAccessReview API on the configured API server to determine whether each request is authorized

The kubelet authorizes API requests using the same request attributes approach as the apiserver.

The verb is determined from the incoming request's HTTP verb:

HTTP verbrequest verb
POSTcreate
GET, HEADget
PUTupdate
PATCHpatch
DELETEdelete

The resource and subresource is determined from the incoming request's path:

Kubelet APIresourcesubresource
/stats/*nodesstats
/metrics/*nodesmetrics
/logs/*nodeslog
/spec/*nodesspec
all othersnodesproxy

The namespace and API group attributes are always an empty string, and the resource name is always the name of the kubelet's Node API object.

When running in this mode, ensure the user identified by the --kubelet-client-certificate and --kubelet-client-key flags passed to the apiserver is authorized for the following attributes:

  • verb=*, resource=nodes, subresource=proxy
  • verb=*, resource=nodes, subresource=stats
  • verb=*, resource=nodes, subresource=log
  • verb=*, resource=nodes, subresource=spec
  • verb=*, resource=nodes, subresource=metrics

14 - TLS bootstrapping

In a Kubernetes cluster, the components on the worker nodes - kubelet and kube-proxy - need to communicate with Kubernetes control plane components, specifically kube-apiserver. In order to ensure that communication is kept private, not interfered with, and ensure that each component of the cluster is talking to another trusted component, we strongly recommend using client TLS certificates on nodes.

The normal process of bootstrapping these components, especially worker nodes that need certificates so they can communicate safely with kube-apiserver, can be a challenging process as it is often outside of the scope of Kubernetes and requires significant additional work. This in turn, can make it challenging to initialize or scale a cluster.

In order to simplify the process, beginning in version 1.4, Kubernetes introduced a certificate request and signing API. The proposal can be found here.

This document describes the process of node initialization, how to set up TLS client certificate bootstrapping for kubelets, and how it works.

Initialization process

When a worker node starts up, the kubelet does the following:

  1. Look for its kubeconfig file
  2. Retrieve the URL of the API server and credentials, normally a TLS key and signed certificate from the kubeconfig file
  3. Attempt to communicate with the API server using the credentials.

Assuming that the kube-apiserver successfully validates the kubelet's credentials, it will treat the kubelet as a valid node, and begin to assign pods to it.

Note that the above process depends upon:

  • Existence of a key and certificate on the local host in the kubeconfig
  • The certificate having been signed by a Certificate Authority (CA) trusted by the kube-apiserver

All of the following are responsibilities of whoever sets up and manages the cluster:

  1. Creating the CA key and certificate
  2. Distributing the CA certificate to the control plane nodes, where kube-apiserver is running
  3. Creating a key and certificate for each kubelet; strongly recommended to have a unique one, with a unique CN, for each kubelet
  4. Signing the kubelet certificate using the CA key
  5. Distributing the kubelet key and signed certificate to the specific node on which the kubelet is running

The TLS Bootstrapping described in this document is intended to simplify, and partially or even completely automate, steps 3 onwards, as these are the most common when initializing or scaling a cluster.

Bootstrap initialization

In the bootstrap initialization process, the following occurs:

  1. kubelet begins
  2. kubelet sees that it does not have a kubeconfig file
  3. kubelet searches for and finds a bootstrap-kubeconfig file
  4. kubelet reads its bootstrap file, retrieving the URL of the API server and a limited usage "token"
  5. kubelet connects to the API server, authenticates using the token
  6. kubelet now has limited credentials to create and retrieve a certificate signing request (CSR)
  7. kubelet creates a CSR for itself with the signerName set to kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client-kubelet
  8. CSR is approved in one of two ways:
    • If configured, kube-controller-manager automatically approves the CSR
    • If configured, an outside process, possibly a person, approves the CSR using the Kubernetes API or via kubectl
  9. Certificate is created for the kubelet
  10. Certificate is issued to the kubelet
  11. kubelet retrieves the certificate
  12. kubelet creates a proper kubeconfig with the key and signed certificate
  13. kubelet begins normal operation
  14. Optional: if configured, kubelet automatically requests renewal of the certificate when it is close to expiry
  15. The renewed certificate is approved and issued, either automatically or manually, depending on configuration.

The rest of this document describes the necessary steps to configure TLS Bootstrapping, and its limitations.

Configuration

To configure for TLS bootstrapping and optional automatic approval, you must configure options on the following components:

  • kube-apiserver
  • kube-controller-manager
  • kubelet
  • in-cluster resources: ClusterRoleBinding and potentially ClusterRole

In addition, you need your Kubernetes Certificate Authority (CA).

Certificate Authority

As without bootstrapping, you will need a Certificate Authority (CA) key and certificate. As without bootstrapping, these will be used to sign the kubelet certificate. As before, it is your responsibility to distribute them to control plane nodes.

For the purposes of this document, we will assume these have been distributed to control plane nodes at /var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem (certificate) and /var/lib/kubernetes/ca-key.pem (key). We will refer to these as "Kubernetes CA certificate and key".

All Kubernetes components that use these certificates - kubelet, kube-apiserver, kube-controller-manager - assume the key and certificate to be PEM-encoded.

kube-apiserver configuration

The kube-apiserver has several requirements to enable TLS bootstrapping:

  • Recognizing CA that signs the client certificate
  • Authenticating the bootstrapping kubelet to the system:bootstrappers group
  • Authorize the bootstrapping kubelet to create a certificate signing request (CSR)

Recognizing client certificates

This is normal for all client certificate authentication. If not already set, add the --client-ca-file=FILENAME flag to the kube-apiserver command to enable client certificate authentication, referencing a certificate authority bundle containing the signing certificate, for example --client-ca-file=/var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem.

Initial bootstrap authentication

In order for the bootstrapping kubelet to connect to kube-apiserver and request a certificate, it must first authenticate to the server. You can use any authenticator that can authenticate the kubelet.

While any authentication strategy can be used for the kubelet's initial bootstrap credentials, the following two authenticators are recommended for ease of provisioning.

  1. Bootstrap Tokens
  2. Token authentication file

Using bootstrap tokens is a simpler and more easily managed method to authenticate kubelets, and does not require any additional flags when starting kube-apiserver.

Whichever method you choose, the requirement is that the kubelet be able to authenticate as a user with the rights to:

  1. create and retrieve CSRs
  2. be automatically approved to request node client certificates, if automatic approval is enabled.

A kubelet authenticating using bootstrap tokens is authenticated as a user in the group system:bootstrappers, which is the standard method to use.

As this feature matures, you should ensure tokens are bound to a Role Based Access Control (RBAC) policy which limits requests (using the bootstrap token) strictly to client requests related to certificate provisioning. With RBAC in place, scoping the tokens to a group allows for great flexibility. For example, you could disable a particular bootstrap group's access when you are done provisioning the nodes.

Bootstrap tokens

Bootstrap tokens are described in detail here. These are tokens that are stored as secrets in the Kubernetes cluster, and then issued to the individual kubelet. You can use a single token for an entire cluster, or issue one per worker node.

The process is two-fold:

  1. Create a Kubernetes secret with the token ID, secret and scope(s).
  2. Issue the token to the kubelet

From the kubelet's perspective, one token is like another and has no special meaning. From the kube-apiserver's perspective, however, the bootstrap token is special. Due to its type, namespace and name, kube-apiserver recognizes it as a special token, and grants anyone authenticating with that token special bootstrap rights, notably treating them as a member of the system:bootstrappers group. This fulfills a basic requirement for TLS bootstrapping.

The details for creating the secret are available here.

If you want to use bootstrap tokens, you must enable it on kube-apiserver with the flag:

--enable-bootstrap-token-auth=true

Token authentication file

kube-apiserver has the ability to accept tokens as authentication. These tokens are arbitrary but should represent at least 128 bits of entropy derived from a secure random number generator (such as /dev/urandom on most modern Linux systems). There are multiple ways you can generate a token. For example:

head -c 16 /dev/urandom | od -An -t x | tr -d ' '

This will generate tokens that look like 02b50b05283e98dd0fd71db496ef01e8.

The token file should look like the following example, where the first three values can be anything and the quoted group name should be as depicted:

02b50b05283e98dd0fd71db496ef01e8,kubelet-bootstrap,10001,"system:bootstrappers"

Add the --token-auth-file=FILENAME flag to the kube-apiserver command (in your systemd unit file perhaps) to enable the token file. See docs here for further details.

Authorize kubelet to create CSR

Now that the bootstrapping node is authenticated as part of the system:bootstrappers group, it needs to be authorized to create a certificate signing request (CSR) as well as retrieve it when done. Fortunately, Kubernetes ships with a ClusterRole with precisely these (and only these) permissions, system:node-bootstrapper.

To do this, you only need to create a ClusterRoleBinding that binds the system:bootstrappers group to the cluster role system:node-bootstrapper.

# enable bootstrapping nodes to create CSR
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRoleBinding
metadata:
  name: create-csrs-for-bootstrapping
subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:bootstrappers
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: system:node-bootstrapper
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

kube-controller-manager configuration

While the apiserver receives the requests for certificates from the kubelet and authenticates those requests, the controller-manager is responsible for issuing actual signed certificates.

The controller-manager performs this function via a certificate-issuing control loop. This takes the form of a cfssl local signer using assets on disk. Currently, all certificates issued have one year validity and a default set of key usages.

In order for the controller-manager to sign certificates, it needs the following:

  • access to the "Kubernetes CA key and certificate" that you created and distributed
  • enabling CSR signing

Access to key and certificate

As described earlier, you need to create a Kubernetes CA key and certificate, and distribute it to the control plane nodes. These will be used by the controller-manager to sign the kubelet certificates.

Since these signed certificates will, in turn, be used by the kubelet to authenticate as a regular kubelet to kube-apiserver, it is important that the CA provided to the controller-manager at this stage also be trusted by kube-apiserver for authentication. This is provided to kube-apiserver with the flag --client-ca-file=FILENAME (for example, --client-ca-file=/var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem), as described in the kube-apiserver configuration section.

To provide the Kubernetes CA key and certificate to kube-controller-manager, use the following flags:

--cluster-signing-cert-file="/etc/path/to/kubernetes/ca/ca.crt" --cluster-signing-key-file="/etc/path/to/kubernetes/ca/ca.key"

For example:

--cluster-signing-cert-file="/var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem" --cluster-signing-key-file="/var/lib/kubernetes/ca-key.pem"

The validity duration of signed certificates can be configured with flag:

--cluster-signing-duration

Approval

In order to approve CSRs, you need to tell the controller-manager that it is acceptable to approve them. This is done by granting RBAC permissions to the correct group.

There are two distinct sets of permissions:

  • nodeclient: If a node is creating a new certificate for a node, then it does not have a certificate yet. It is authenticating using one of the tokens listed above, and thus is part of the group system:bootstrappers.
  • selfnodeclient: If a node is renewing its certificate, then it already has a certificate (by definition), which it uses continuously to authenticate as part of the group system:nodes.

To enable the kubelet to request and receive a new certificate, create a ClusterRoleBinding that binds the group in which the bootstrapping node is a member system:bootstrappers to the ClusterRole that grants it permission, system:certificates.k8s.io:certificatesigningrequests:nodeclient:

# Approve all CSRs for the group "system:bootstrappers"
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRoleBinding
metadata:
  name: auto-approve-csrs-for-group
subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:bootstrappers
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: system:certificates.k8s.io:certificatesigningrequests:nodeclient
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

To enable the kubelet to renew its own client certificate, create a ClusterRoleBinding that binds the group in which the fully functioning node is a member system:nodes to the ClusterRole that grants it permission, system:certificates.k8s.io:certificatesigningrequests:selfnodeclient:

# Approve renewal CSRs for the group "system:nodes"
apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
kind: ClusterRoleBinding
metadata:
  name: auto-approve-renewals-for-nodes
subjects:
- kind: Group
  name: system:nodes
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
roleRef:
  kind: ClusterRole
  name: system:certificates.k8s.io:certificatesigningrequests:selfnodeclient
  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io

The csrapproving controller that ships as part of kube-controller-manager and is enabled by default. The controller uses the SubjectAccessReview API to determine if a given user is authorized to request a CSR, then approves based on the authorization outcome. To prevent conflicts with other approvers, the built-in approver doesn't explicitly deny CSRs. It only ignores unauthorized requests. The controller also prunes expired certificates as part of garbage collection.

kubelet configuration

Finally, with the control plane nodes properly set up and all of the necessary authentication and authorization in place, we can configure the kubelet.

The kubelet requires the following configuration to bootstrap:

  • A path to store the key and certificate it generates (optional, can use default)
  • A path to a kubeconfig file that does not yet exist; it will place the bootstrapped config file here
  • A path to a bootstrap kubeconfig file to provide the URL for the server and bootstrap credentials, e.g. a bootstrap token
  • Optional: instructions to rotate certificates

The bootstrap kubeconfig should be in a path available to the kubelet, for example /var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig.

Its format is identical to a normal kubeconfig file. A sample file might look as follows:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Config
clusters:
- cluster:
    certificate-authority: /var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem
    server: https://my.server.example.com:6443
  name: bootstrap
contexts:
- context:
    cluster: bootstrap
    user: kubelet-bootstrap
  name: bootstrap
current-context: bootstrap
preferences: {}
users:
- name: kubelet-bootstrap
  user:
    token: 07401b.f395accd246ae52d

The important elements to note are:

  • certificate-authority: path to a CA file, used to validate the server certificate presented by kube-apiserver
  • server: URL to kube-apiserver
  • token: the token to use

The format of the token does not matter, as long as it matches what kube-apiserver expects. In the above example, we used a bootstrap token. As stated earlier, any valid authentication method can be used, not only tokens.

Because the bootstrap kubeconfig is a standard kubeconfig, you can use kubectl to generate it. To create the above example file:

kubectl config --kubeconfig=/var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig set-cluster bootstrap --server='https://my.server.example.com:6443' --certificate-authority=/var/lib/kubernetes/ca.pem
kubectl config --kubeconfig=/var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig set-credentials kubelet-bootstrap --token=07401b.f395accd246ae52d
kubectl config --kubeconfig=/var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig set-context bootstrap --user=kubelet-bootstrap --cluster=bootstrap
kubectl config --kubeconfig=/var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig use-context bootstrap

To indicate to the kubelet to use the bootstrap kubeconfig, use the following kubelet flag:

--bootstrap-kubeconfig="/var/lib/kubelet/bootstrap-kubeconfig" --kubeconfig="/var/lib/kubelet/kubeconfig"

When starting the kubelet, if the file specified via --kubeconfig does not exist, the bootstrap kubeconfig specified via --bootstrap-kubeconfig is used to request a client certificate from the API server. On approval of the certificate request and receipt back by the kubelet, a kubeconfig file referencing the generated key and obtained certificate is written to the path specified by --kubeconfig. The certificate and key file will be placed in the directory specified by --cert-dir.

Client and serving certificates

All of the above relate to kubelet client certificates, specifically, the certificates a kubelet uses to authenticate to kube-apiserver.

A kubelet also can use serving certificates. The kubelet itself exposes an https endpoint for certain features. To secure these, the kubelet can do one of:

  • use provided key and certificate, via the --tls-private-key-file and --tls-cert-file flags
  • create self-signed key and certificate, if a key and certificate are not provided
  • request serving certificates from the cluster server, via the CSR API

The client certificate provided by TLS bootstrapping is signed, by default, for client auth only, and thus cannot be used as serving certificates, or server auth.

However, you can enable its server certificate, at least partially, via certificate rotation.

Certificate rotation

Kubernetes v1.8 and higher kubelet implements features for enabling rotation of its client and/or serving certificates. Note, rotation of serving certificate is a beta feature and requires the RotateKubeletServerCertificate feature flag on the kubelet (enabled by default).

You can configure the kubelet to rotate its client certificates by creating new CSRs as its existing credentials expire. To enable this feature, use the rotateCertificates field of kubelet configuration file or pass the following command line argument to the kubelet (deprecated):

--rotate-certificates

Enabling RotateKubeletServerCertificate causes the kubelet both to request a serving certificate after bootstrapping its client credentials and to rotate that certificate. To enable this behavior, use the field serverTLSBootstrap of the kubelet configuration file or pass the following command line argument to the kubelet (deprecated):

--rotate-server-certificates

Other authenticating components

All of TLS bootstrapping described in this document relates to the kubelet. However, other components may need to communicate directly with kube-apiserver. Notable is kube-proxy, which is part of the Kubernetes node components and runs on every node, but may also include other components such as monitoring or networking.

Like the kubelet, these other components also require a method of authenticating to kube-apiserver. You have several options for generating these credentials:

  • The old way: Create and distribute certificates the same way you did for kubelet before TLS bootstrapping
  • DaemonSet: Since the kubelet itself is loaded on each node, and is sufficient to start base services, you can run kube-proxy and other node-specific services not as a standalone process, but rather as a daemonset in the kube-system namespace. Since it will be in-cluster, you can give it a proper service account with appropriate permissions to perform its activities. This may be the simplest way to configure such services.

kubectl approval

CSRs can be approved outside of the approval flows built into the controller manager.

The signing controller does not immediately sign all certificate requests. Instead, it waits until they have been flagged with an "Approved" status by an appropriately-privileged user. This flow is intended to allow for automated approval handled by an external approval controller or the approval controller implemented in the core controller-manager. However cluster administrators can also manually approve certificate requests using kubectl. An administrator can list CSRs with kubectl get csr and describe one in detail with kubectl describe csr <name>. An administrator can approve or deny a CSR with kubectl certificate approve <name> and kubectl certificate deny <name>.

15 - Validating Admission Policy

FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.28 [beta]

This page provides an overview of Validating Admission Policy.

What is Validating Admission Policy?

Validating admission policies offer a declarative, in-process alternative to validating admission webhooks.

Validating admission policies use the Common Expression Language (CEL) to declare the validation rules of a policy. Validation admission policies are highly configurable, enabling policy authors to define policies that can be parameterized and scoped to resources as needed by cluster administrators.

What Resources Make a Policy

A policy is generally made up of three resources:

  • The ValidatingAdmissionPolicy describes the abstract logic of a policy (think: "this policy makes sure a particular label is set to a particular value").

  • A ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding links the above resources together and provides scoping. If you only want to require an owner label to be set for Pods, the binding is where you would specify this restriction.

  • A parameter resource provides information to a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy to make it a concrete statement (think "the owner label must be set to something that ends in .company.com"). A native type such as ConfigMap or a CRD defines the schema of a parameter resource. ValidatingAdmissionPolicy objects specify what Kind they are expecting for their parameter resource.

At least a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy and a corresponding ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding must be defined for a policy to have an effect.

If a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy does not need to be configured via parameters, simply leave spec.paramKind in ValidatingAdmissionPolicy not specified.

Before you begin

  • Ensure the ValidatingAdmissionPolicy feature gate is enabled.
  • Ensure that the admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1 API is enabled.

Getting Started with Validating Admission Policy

Validating Admission Policy is part of the cluster control-plane. You should write and deploy them with great caution. The following describes how to quickly experiment with Validating Admission Policy.

Creating a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy

The following is an example of a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy.

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "demo-policy.example.com"
spec:
  failurePolicy: Fail
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  validations:
    - expression: "object.spec.replicas <= 5"

spec.validations contains CEL expressions which use the Common Expression Language (CEL) to validate the request. If an expression evaluates to false, the validation check is enforced according to the spec.failurePolicy field.

To configure a validating admission policy for use in a cluster, a binding is required. The following is an example of a ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding.:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding
metadata:
  name: "demo-binding-test.example.com"
spec:
  policyName: "demo-policy.example.com"
  validationActions: [Deny]
  matchResources:
    namespaceSelector:
      matchLabels:
        environment: test

When trying to create a deployment with replicas set not satisfying the validation expression, an error will return containing message:

ValidatingAdmissionPolicy 'demo-policy.example.com' with binding 'demo-binding-test.example.com' denied request: failed expression: object.spec.replicas <= 5

The above provides a simple example of using ValidatingAdmissionPolicy without a parameter configured.

Validation actions

Each ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding must specify one or more validationActions to declare how validations of a policy are enforced.

The supported validationActions are:

  • Deny: Validation failure results in a denied request.
  • Warn: Validation failure is reported to the request client as a warning.
  • Audit: Validation failure is included in the audit event for the API request.

For example, to both warn clients about a validation failure and to audit the validation failures, use:

validationActions: [Warn, Audit]

Deny and Warn may not be used together since this combination needlessly duplicates the validation failure both in the API response body and the HTTP warning headers.

A validation that evaluates to false is always enforced according to these actions. Failures defined by the failurePolicy are enforced according to these actions only if the failurePolicy is set to Fail (or not specified), otherwise the failures are ignored.

See Audit Annotations: validation failures for more details about the validation failure audit annotation.

Parameter resources

Parameter resources allow a policy configuration to be separate from its definition. A policy can define paramKind, which outlines GVK of the parameter resource, and then a policy binding ties a policy by name (via policyName) to a particular parameter resource via paramRef.

If parameter configuration is needed, the following is an example of a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy with parameter configuration.

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "replicalimit-policy.example.com"
spec:
  failurePolicy: Fail
  paramKind:
    apiVersion: rules.example.com/v1
    kind: ReplicaLimit
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  validations:
    - expression: "object.spec.replicas <= params.maxReplicas"
      reason: Invalid

The spec.paramKind field of the ValidatingAdmissionPolicy specifies the kind of resources used to parameterize this policy. For this example, it is configured by ReplicaLimit custom resources. Note in this example how the CEL expression references the parameters via the CEL params variable, e.g. params.maxReplicas. spec.matchConstraints specifies what resources this policy is designed to validate. Note that the native types such like ConfigMap could also be used as parameter reference.

The spec.validations fields contain CEL expressions. If an expression evaluates to false, the validation check is enforced according to the spec.failurePolicy field.

The validating admission policy author is responsible for providing the ReplicaLimit parameter CRD.

To configure an validating admission policy for use in a cluster, a binding and parameter resource are created. The following is an example of a ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding that uses a cluster-wide param - the same param will be used to validate every resource request that matches the binding:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding
metadata:
  name: "replicalimit-binding-test.example.com"
spec:
  policyName: "replicalimit-policy.example.com"
  validationActions: [Deny]
  paramRef:
    name: "replica-limit-test.example.com"
    namespace: "default"
  matchResources:
    namespaceSelector:
      matchLabels:
        environment: test

Notice this binding applies a parameter to the policy for all resources which are in the test environment.

The parameter resource could be as following:

apiVersion: rules.example.com/v1
kind: ReplicaLimit
metadata:
  name: "replica-limit-test.example.com"
  namespace: "default"
maxReplicas: 3

This policy parameter resource limits deployments to a max of 3 replicas.

An admission policy may have multiple bindings. To bind all other environments to have a maxReplicas limit of 100, create another ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding
metadata:
  name: "replicalimit-binding-nontest"
spec:
  policyName: "replicalimit-policy.example.com"
  validationActions: [Deny]
  paramRef:
    name: "replica-limit-prod.example.com"
    namespace: "default"
  matchResources:
    namespaceSelector:
      matchExpressions:
      - key: environment
        operator: NotIn
        values:
        - test

Notice this binding applies a different parameter to resources which are not in the test environment.

And have a parameter resource:

apiVersion: rules.example.com/v1
kind: ReplicaLimit
metadata:
  name: "replica-limit-prod.example.com"
maxReplicas: 100

For each admission request, the API server evaluates CEL expressions of each (policy, binding, param) combination that match the request. For a request to be admitted it must pass all evaluations.

If multiple bindings match the request, the policy will be evaluated for each, and they must all pass evaluation for the policy to be considered passed.

If multiple parameters match a single binding, the policy rules will be evaluated for each param, and they too must all pass for the binding to be considered passed. Bindings can have overlapping match criteria. The policy is evaluated for each matching binding-parameter combination. A policy may even be evaluated multiple times if multiple bindings match it, or a single binding that matches multiple parameters.

The params object representing a parameter resource will not be set if a parameter resource has not been bound, so for policies requiring a parameter resource, it can be useful to add a check to ensure one has been bound. A parameter resource will not be bound and params will be null if paramKind of the policy, or paramRef of the binding are not specified.

For the use cases require parameter configuration, we recommend to add a param check in spec.validations[0].expression:

- expression: "params != null"
  message: "params missing but required to bind to this policy"

Optional parameters

It can be convenient to be able to have optional parameters as part of a parameter resource, and only validate them if present. CEL provides has(), which checks if the key passed to it exists. CEL also implements Boolean short-circuiting. If the first half of a logical OR evaluates to true, it won’t evaluate the other half (since the result of the entire OR will be true regardless).

Combining the two, we can provide a way to validate optional parameters:

!has(params.optionalNumber) || (params.optionalNumber >= 5 && params.optionalNumber <= 10)

Here, we first check that the optional parameter is present with !has(params.optionalNumber).

  • If optionalNumber hasn’t been defined, then the expression short-circuits since !has(params.optionalNumber) will evaluate to true.
  • If optionalNumber has been defined, then the latter half of the CEL expression will be evaluated, and optionalNumber will be checked to ensure that it contains a value between 5 and 10 inclusive.

Per-namespace Parameters

As the author of a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy and its ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding, you can choose to specify cluster-wide, or per-namespace parameters. If you specify a namespace for the binding's paramRef, the control plane only searches for parameters in that namespace.

However, if namespace is not specified in the ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding, the API server can search for relevant parameters in the namespace that a request is against. For example, if you make a request to modify a ConfigMap in the default namespace and there is a relevant ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding with no namespace set, then the API server looks for a parameter object in default. This design enables policy configuration that depends on the namespace of the resource being manipulated, for more fine-tuned control.

Parameter selector

In addition to specify a parameter in a binding by name, you may choose instead to specify label selector, such that all resources of the policy's paramKind, and the param's namespace (if applicable) that match the label selector are selected for evaluation. See selector for more information on how label selectors match resources.

If multiple parameters are found to meet the condition, the policy's rules are evaluated for each parameter found and the results will be ANDed together.

If namespace is provided, only objects of the paramKind in the provided namespace are eligible for selection. Otherwise, when namespace is empty and paramKind is namespace-scoped, the namespace used in the request being admitted will be used.

Authorization checks

We introduced the authorization check for parameter resources. User is expected to have read access to the resources referenced by paramKind in ValidatingAdmissionPolicy and paramRef in ValidatingAdmissionPolicyBinding.

Note that if a resource in paramKind fails resolving via the restmapper, read access to all resources of groups is required.

Failure Policy

failurePolicy defines how mis-configurations and CEL expressions evaluating to error from the admission policy are handled. Allowed values are Ignore or Fail.

  • Ignore means that an error calling the ValidatingAdmissionPolicy is ignored and the API request is allowed to continue.
  • Fail means that an error calling the ValidatingAdmissionPolicy causes the admission to fail and the API request to be rejected.

Note that the failurePolicy is defined inside ValidatingAdmissionPolicy:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
spec:
...
failurePolicy: Ignore # The default is "Fail"
validations:
- expression: "object.spec.xyz == params.x"  

Validation Expression

spec.validations[i].expression represents the expression which will be evaluated by CEL. To learn more, see the CEL language specification CEL expressions have access to the contents of the Admission request/response, organized into CEL variables as well as some other useful variables:

  • 'object' - The object from the incoming request. The value is null for DELETE requests.
  • 'oldObject' - The existing object. The value is null for CREATE requests.
  • 'request' - Attributes of the admission request.
  • 'params' - Parameter resource referred to by the policy binding being evaluated. The value is null if ParamKind is not specified.
  • namespaceObject - The namespace, as a Kubernetes resource, that the incoming object belongs to. The value is null if the incoming object is cluster-scoped.
  • authorizer - A CEL Authorizer. May be used to perform authorization checks for the principal (authenticated user) of the request. See Authz in the Kubernetes CEL library documentation for more details.
  • authorizer.requestResource - A shortcut for an authorization check configured with the request resource (group, resource, (subresource), namespace, name).

The apiVersion, kind, metadata.name and metadata.generateName are always accessible from the root of the object. No other metadata properties are accessible.

Equality on arrays with list type of 'set' or 'map' ignores element order, i.e. [1, 2] == [2, 1]. Concatenation on arrays with x-kubernetes-list-type use the semantics of the list type:

  • 'set': X + Y performs a union where the array positions of all elements in X are preserved and non-intersecting elements in Y are appended, retaining their partial order.
  • 'map': X + Y performs a merge where the array positions of all keys in X are preserved but the values are overwritten by values in Y when the key sets of X and Y intersect. Elements in Y with non-intersecting keys are appended, retaining their partial order.

Validation expression examples

ExpressionPurpose
object.minReplicas <= object.replicas && object.replicas <= object.maxReplicasValidate that the three fields defining replicas are ordered appropriately
'Available' in object.stateCountsValidate that an entry with the 'Available' key exists in a map
(size(object.list1) == 0) != (size(object.list2) == 0)Validate that one of two lists is non-empty, but not both
!('MY_KEY' in object.map1) || object['MY_KEY'].matches('^[a-zA-Z]*$')Validate the value of a map for a specific key, if it is in the map
object.envars.filter(e, e.name == 'MY_ENV').all(e, e.value.matches('^[a-zA-Z]*$')Validate the 'value' field of a listMap entry where key field 'name' is 'MY_ENV'
has(object.expired) && object.created + object.ttl < object.expiredValidate that 'expired' date is after a 'create' date plus a 'ttl' duration
object.health.startsWith('ok')Validate a 'health' string field has the prefix 'ok'
object.widgets.exists(w, w.key == 'x' && w.foo < 10)Validate that the 'foo' property of a listMap item with a key 'x' is less than 10
type(object) == string ? object == '100%' : object == 1000Validate an int-or-string field for both the int and string cases
object.metadata.name.startsWith(object.prefix)Validate that an object's name has the prefix of another field value
object.set1.all(e, !(e in object.set2))Validate that two listSets are disjoint
size(object.names) == size(object.details) && object.names.all(n, n in object.details)Validate the 'details' map is keyed by the items in the 'names' listSet
size(object.clusters.filter(c, c.name == object.primary)) == 1Validate that the 'primary' property has one and only one occurrence in the 'clusters' listMap

Read Supported evaluation on CEL for more information about CEL rules.

spec.validation[i].reason represents a machine-readable description of why this validation failed. If this is the first validation in the list to fail, this reason, as well as the corresponding HTTP response code, are used in the HTTP response to the client. The currently supported reasons are: Unauthorized, Forbidden, Invalid, RequestEntityTooLarge. If not set, StatusReasonInvalid is used in the response to the client.

Matching requests: matchConditions

You can define match conditions for a ValidatingAdmissionPolicy if you need fine-grained request filtering. These conditions are useful if you find that match rules, objectSelectors and namespaceSelectors still doesn't provide the filtering you want. Match conditions are CEL expressions. All match conditions must evaluate to true for the resource to be evaluated.

Here is an example illustrating a few different uses for match conditions:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "demo-policy.example.com"
spec:
  failurePolicy: Fail
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
      - apiGroups:   ["*"]
        apiVersions: ["*"]
        operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
        resources:   ["*"]
  matchConditions:
    - name: 'exclude-leases' # Each match condition must have a unique name
      expression: '!(request.resource.group == "coordination.k8s.io" && request.resource.resource == "leases")' # Match non-lease resources.
    - name: 'exclude-kubelet-requests'
      expression: '!("system:nodes" in request.userInfo.groups)' # Match requests made by non-node users.
    - name: 'rbac' # Skip RBAC requests.
      expression: 'request.resource.group != "rbac.authorization.k8s.io"'
  validations:
    - expression: "!object.metadata.name.contains('demo') || object.metadata.namespace == 'demo'"

Match conditions have access to the same CEL variables as validation expressions.

In the event of an error evaluating a match condition the policy is not evaluated. Whether to reject the request is determined as follows:

  1. If any match condition evaluated to false (regardless of other errors), the API server skips the policy.
  2. Otherwise:

Audit annotations

auditAnnotations may be used to include audit annotations in the audit event of the API request.

For example, here is an admission policy with an audit annotation:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "demo-policy.example.com"
spec:
  failurePolicy: Fail
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  validations:
    - expression: "object.spec.replicas > 50"
      messageExpression: "'Deployment spec.replicas set to ' + string(object.spec.replicas)"
  auditAnnotations:
    - key: "high-replica-count"
      valueExpression: "'Deployment spec.replicas set to ' + string(object.spec.replicas)"

When an API request is validated with this admission policy, the resulting audit event will look like:

# the audit event recorded
{
    "kind": "Event",
    "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1",
    "annotations": {
        "demo-policy.example.com/high-replica-count": "Deployment spec.replicas set to 128"
        # other annotations
        ...
    }
    # other fields
    ...
}

In this example the annotation will only be included if the spec.replicas of the Deployment is more than 50, otherwise the CEL expression evaluates to null and the annotation will not be included.

Note that audit annotation keys are prefixed by the name of the ValidatingAdmissionWebhook and a /. If another admission controller, such as an admission webhook, uses the exact same audit annotation key, the value of the first admission controller to include the audit annotation will be included in the audit event and all other values will be ignored.

Message expression

To return a more friendly message when the policy rejects a request, we can use a CEL expression to composite a message with spec.validations[i].messageExpression. Similar to the validation expression, a message expression has access to object, oldObject, request, params, and namespaceObject. Unlike validations, message expression must evaluate to a string.

For example, to better inform the user of the reason of denial when the policy refers to a parameter, we can have the following validation:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1alpha1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "deploy-replica-policy.example.com"
spec:
  paramKind:
    apiVersion: rules.example.com/v1
    kind: ReplicaLimit
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  validations:
  - expression: "object.spec.replicas <= params.maxReplicas"
    messageExpression: "'object.spec.replicas must be no greater than ' + string(params.maxReplicas)"
    reason: Invalid

After creating a params object that limits the replicas to 3 and setting up the binding, when we try to create a deployment with 5 replicas, we will receive the following message.

$ kubectl create deploy --image=nginx nginx --replicas=5
error: failed to create deployment: deployments.apps "nginx" is forbidden: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy 'deploy-replica-policy.example.com' with binding 'demo-binding-test.example.com' denied request: object.spec.replicas must be no greater than 3

This is more informative than a static message of "too many replicas".

The message expression takes precedence over the static message defined in spec.validations[i].message if both are defined. However, if the message expression fails to evaluate, the static message will be used instead. Additionally, if the message expression evaluates to a multi-line string, the evaluation result will be discarded and the static message will be used if present. Note that static message is validated against multi-line strings.

Type checking

When a policy definition is created or updated, the validation process parses the expressions it contains and reports any syntax errors, rejecting the definition if any errors are found. Afterward, the referred variables are checked for type errors, including missing fields and type confusion, against the matched types of spec.matchConstraints. The result of type checking can be retrieved from status.typeChecking. The presence of status.typeChecking indicates the completion of type checking, and an empty status.typeChecking means that no errors were detected.

For example, given the following policy definition:

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "deploy-replica-policy.example.com"
spec:
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  validations:
  - expression: "object.replicas > 1" # should be "object.spec.replicas > 1"
    message: "must be replicated"
    reason: Invalid

The status will yield the following information:

status:
  typeChecking:
    expressionWarnings:
    - fieldRef: spec.validations[0].expression
      warning: |-
        apps/v1, Kind=Deployment: ERROR: <input>:1:7: undefined field 'replicas'
         | object.replicas > 1
         | ......^        

If multiple resources are matched in spec.matchConstraints, all of matched resources will be checked against. For example, the following policy definition

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "replica-policy.example.com"
spec:
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments","replicasets"]
  validations:
  - expression: "object.replicas > 1" # should be "object.spec.replicas > 1"
    message: "must be replicated"
    reason: Invalid

will have multiple types and type checking result of each type in the warning message.

status:
  typeChecking:
    expressionWarnings:
    - fieldRef: spec.validations[0].expression
      warning: |-
        apps/v1, Kind=Deployment: ERROR: <input>:1:7: undefined field 'replicas'
         | object.replicas > 1
         | ......^
        apps/v1, Kind=ReplicaSet: ERROR: <input>:1:7: undefined field 'replicas'
         | object.replicas > 1
         | ......^        

Type Checking has the following limitation:

  • No wildcard matching. If spec.matchConstraints.resourceRules contains "*" in any of apiGroups, apiVersions or resources, the types that "*" matches will not be checked.
  • The number of matched types is limited to 10. This is to prevent a policy that manually specifying too many types. to consume excessive computing resources. In the order of ascending group, version, and then resource, 11th combination and beyond are ignored.
  • Type Checking does not affect the policy behavior in any way. Even if the type checking detects errors, the policy will continue to evaluate. If errors do occur during evaluate, the failure policy will decide its outcome.
  • Type Checking does not apply to CRDs, including matched CRD types and reference of paramKind. The support for CRDs will come in future release.

Variable composition

If an expression grows too complicated, or part of the expression is reusable and computationally expensive to evaluate, you can extract some part of the expressions into variables. A variable is a named expression that can be referred later in variables in other expressions.

spec:
  variables:
    - name: foo
      expression: "'foo' in object.spec.metadata.labels ? object.spec.metadata.labels['foo'] : 'default'"
  validations:
    - expression: variables.foo == 'bar'

A variable is lazily evaluated when it is first referred. Any error that occurs during the evaluation will be reported during the evaluation of the referring expression. Both the result and potential error are memorized and count only once towards the runtime cost.

The order of variables are important because a variable can refer to other variables that are defined before it. This ordering prevents circular references.

The following is a more complex example of enforcing that image repo names match the environment defined in its namespace.

# This policy enforces that all containers of a deployment has the image repo match the environment label of its namespace.
# Except for "exempt" deployments, or any containers that do not belong to the "example.com" organization (e.g. common sidecars).
# For example, if the namespace has a label of {"environment": "staging"}, all container images must be either staging.example.com/*
# or do not contain "example.com" at all, unless the deployment has {"exempt": "true"} label.
apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy
metadata:
  name: "image-matches-namespace-environment.policy.example.com"
spec:
  failurePolicy: Fail
  matchConstraints:
    resourceRules:
    - apiGroups:   ["apps"]
      apiVersions: ["v1"]
      operations:  ["CREATE", "UPDATE"]
      resources:   ["deployments"]
  variables:
  - name: environment
    expression: "'environment' in namespaceObject.metadata.labels ? namespaceObject.metadata.labels['environment'] : 'prod'"
  - name: exempt
    expression: "'exempt' in object.metadata.labels && object.metadata.labels['exempt'] == 'true'"
  - name: containers
    expression: "object.spec.template.spec.containers"
  - name: containersToCheck
    expression: "variables.containers.filter(c, c.image.contains('example.com/'))"
  validations:
  - expression: "variables.exempt || variables.containersToCheck.all(c, c.image.startsWith(variables.environment + '.'))"
    messageExpression: "'only ' + variables.environment + ' images are allowed in namespace ' + namespaceObject.metadata.name"

With the policy bound to the namespace default, which is labeled environment: prod, the following attempt to create a deployment would be rejected.

kubectl create deploy --image=dev.example.com/nginx invalid

The error message is similar to this.

error: failed to create deployment: deployments.apps "invalid" is forbidden: ValidatingAdmissionPolicy 'image-matches-namespace-environment.policy.example.com' with binding 'demo-binding-test.example.com' denied request: only prod images are allowed in namespace default